The National
Science Foundation's Tokyo Regional Office periodically reports
on develop-ments in Japan that are related to the Foundation's
mission. It also provides occasional re-ports on developments
in other East Asian countries. These reports are intended to provide
information for the use of NSF program officers and policy makers;
they are not statements of NSF policy.
This memorandum is based on a report prepared by Joan Prival and Terry Woodin from the National Science Foundation's Division of Undergraduate Education. Prival and Woodin were in Japan from October 1 through 25, 1999 where they visited Tokyo, Aichi Prefecture, and Hokkaido. Their visits were made possible by Senior Invitational Fellowships awarded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. Dr. Hidetoshi Miyakawa of Aichi University of Education served as their official host and overall coordinator for the visit.
Inquiries should be addressed to Dr. Prival (jprival@nsf.gov) or Dr. Woodin (twoodin@nsf.gov).
Educational Reform
In 1998, the Ministry of Education and Science (Monbusho) reformed the Course of Study for K-12 schools to emphasize the well being and human development of the child in a changing international society. The new Course of Study responds to concerns that more attention should be given to the child and places less emphasis on subject content. It is, in part, a reaction to "bullying", increasing dropout figures and violence. Of particular concern is the attention given to national exams required for admission to the national universities. The stress induced by cramming for the exams has been of increasing concern. In cities, 70% of the students attend cram schools or juku seeking to improve their performance on the national exam. University faculty complain that by the time the students arrive on the campuses they no longer work hard, having put all their energy into preparing for admission.
Under the new curriculum children will spend fewer hours in school and Saturday school will be eliminated. There will be an emphasis on moral education, teaching children to respect life and human rights, to appreciate the environment, and to appreciate different cultures. The new curriculum also seeks to develop independent thinking, self-motivation, and creativity. A new integrated study component features an interdisciplinary, society-oriented approach focusing on four areas: environment, international issues, welfare, and information technology. The introduction of the integrated study component is a reaction to criticism that the Japanese education system is just "stuffing students with knowledge" and is not developing students' creativity. Under integrated studies, students will identify and solve problems by themselves. To accommodate the decrease in school hours and the introduction of the new integrated study, teaching of content areas will be reduced by 30 percent. Within the general course of study outline, individual schools may design their own specific approaches and educational activities.
Monbusho has also mandated reform of university teacher preparation programs leading to teacher licensure, basically reducing the number of credits required in subject content areas while increasing the credits required in pedagogy. A major force affecting universities that prepare teachers and even affecting the K-12 curriculum is the aging population and the declining birth rate in Japan. This factor is contributing to a surplus of teachers and was offered as a reason for the changing attitude of students. For example, with fewer children, parents are able to spend more money sending their children, to cram school, resulting in less time for the children to play.
Monbusho has asked universities to form closer ties with schools
and universities and is also encouraging universities to seek
outside funding to support research and special projects. As an
example of forming closer ties with schools, universities might
support and advise teachers regarding content and methods of teaching
integrated studies. Through interacting with schools, university
faculty who prepare teachers have a better understanding of what
kind of person is needed at the school.
The Process of Reform
Monbusho reviews the Course of Study every 10 years in response to national student assessment results. A central council consisting of approximately 60 members selected by Monbusho establishes a curriculum council that then selects a committee to write the new curriculum. A separate curriculum committee addresses university curriculum. The central council consists of leaders from industry, writers (e.g. novelists), university faculty, teachers, principals, and school board members (but no politicians), who are selected based on their involvement with education issues in their work. Some of the central council members serve on the curriculum committee. We were interested in exploring the relation between K-12 curriculum change and the reform of teacher preparation at the university level and found that there is not necessarily a dialogue between the two areas. The university curriculum committee operates independently of the K-12 curriculum committee. Thus, it was pointed out, the opinions of the K-12 committee may not be considered or accepted by the university curriculum committee.
The reform will be phased in over the next three years with full implementation in 2002. Each school will develop its own plans for implementation. Teachers at each school will be meeting regularly to discuss the reforms. It is clear teachers will play a major role in deciding how to implement the integrated study component of the educational reform.
Reaction to Reform
The curriculum reform is not without controversy and we found many people willing to discuss their concerns about the reform. We also saw examples of how the reform was being put into practice, including the introduction of new teaching strategies that reflect the emphasis on individual students' needs and the design of courses and curricula with open-ended problem solving challenges that encourage independent thinking.
Science education officials at the National Institute for Educational Reform (NIER) in Tokyo provided background about the revisions in the science curriculum. TIMSS results indicated that although their achievement scores are high, Japanese students score low when asked if they like science. This dislike and distrust of science and mathematics is mirrored in the general population. This finding, coupled with the decreasing number of students pursuing careers in science and dissatisfaction with student performance on a national achievement test conducted in 1996, generated an interest in educational reform that would enhance students' knowledge of science concepts and increase students' motivation. There was concern that the 30 percent reduction in the number of topics taught compromises the original intent of the curriculum reform. Decisions were made to move specific topics to later grades or to eliminate some topics altogether.
Opinions on the curriculum changes varied. A high school principal indicated that most scientists and mathematicians question the new curriculum, but younger parents approve of the changes. A vice-principal of a junior high school stated that "the aims of the new curriculum are very, very good." He feels it could raise the level of teaching and there could be good outcomes. He expects that all teachers will be able to teach the new curriculum and commented that the school is gradually changing the style of teaching to conform to the new curriculum. A Board of Education official in Sapporo felt that while the curriculum would be helpful for students, it might be a burden to teachers.
There is also a changing perspective on cram schools. Monbusho used to blame the cram schools for creating a highly competitive atmosphere, and for decreasing the time available for children to play. Cram schools were not formerly part of the spectrum of the Japanese education system; however, now Monbusho is revisiting this position. A parent suggested to us that cram schools might now provide a back up for students as the new curriculum reduces content taught in the regular schools.
A junior high school mathematics teacher we spoke with was a member of a group of teachers researching the literature and working on implementing the new curriculum in mathematics. While he agreed with the spirit of the reform, he was not satisfied with the decrease in topics because he finds the more interesting topics such as histograms will be eliminated. Some of the people we talked with stated that the lost topics might be addressed through the integrated study component.
Teacher Preparation
Monbusho sets the minimum requirements for licensure and individual
universities may exceed these requirements. Most students obtain
more than one license allowing them to teach in more than one
type of school (e.g. elementary and junior high school). Some
universities and prefectures require students to do so. These
students must complete a practicum of two to four weeks in each
of the two school levels.
At Aichi University of Education, students do the practicum as juniors, completing four weeks in the main license area. This exceeds the current government requirement of two weeks. At Aichi it is recommended that students obtain two licenses; in that case they must do six weeks of practicum. For example, to obtain an elementary and JHS license where the main license is in JHS, the student would complete a four-week practicum in JHS and a two-week practicum at an elementary school. The practicum associated with the main license is done in the junior year; the practicum for the additional license is in the senior year.
The student practicum at Aichi University of Education and at some of the other universities of education we visited consists of three components:
The student teacher is responsible for homeroom and moral education, as well as the student's subject area (observing, teaching, and team-teaching). In addition, the student teacher writes a teaching plan and discusses it with other teachers. The student teacher records his experience each day and submits it to the teacher. At the end of the practicum all the reports go to the professor. The professor also visits the student teachers in their schools and observes the student teaching. Two years ago Aichi University decreased the number of reports required because faculty felt the student teachers were spending too much time writing reports, and they wanted to allow more time for interaction with teachers and students. Student teachers are not involved with assessing students. The master teacher evaluates the student teacher. At the final teaching session faculty and teachers watch and separately evaluate and then compare their evaluations. The principal also observes the student teacher. The university faculty make the final determination of grade. If a student receives a C or D, he cannot be a teacher in the future. Less than 1 percent of students receive C's or D's.
Student teaching is performed either at the attached school or at the school the student actually attended. In Tokyo, student teachers may not student teach in the school they graduated from. The reason is to protect the privacy of the students (the student teacher would have access to information about neighbors.) This was later contradicted when we visited a senior high school. The rule may pertain only to junior high schools and elementary schools, since senior high schools have a larger attendance zone.
Students who have completed the course of study at a teacher training institution graduate with one or more licenses to teach in particular levels (elementary, junior high or senior high school). In order to be hired as a teacher they must take an employment test administered by the Board of Education in the prefecture. This is a written exam specific for each school level or subject area, followed by an interview conducted by a principal, a vice principal and a teaching consultant or employee of the Board of Education. There is also a group interview of five or six candidates. Those who pass are hired, with the pass rate set to match the number of vacancies.
Candidates for elementary positions must demonstrate content
knowledge plus pass a practical skills test that could include
such skills as playing the piano, singing, and a physical and
psychology test. There is more emphasis on content knowledge
for junior high school teacher candidates. The science teacher
must have general information and knowledge of all science disciplines.
For secondary level teachers, there are fewer exams. For example,
a physical is only necessary for secondary teachers who are planning
to teach physical education.
There are many more applicants than there are teaching position
vacancies. For example, we were provided with the following data
on teacher applicants for Chiba city:
| Level | Number of applicants | Number employed |
| Elementary |
|
|
| Lower secondary |
|
|
| Upper secondary |
|
|
Those who are not given jobs are considered to have failed the exam. Some receive "part time" employment, meaning they are hired as temporary employees. Those who fail the exam may retake it the following year. New applicants represent 50-60 percent of applicants. Teachers are also hired under emergency permits, as in the United States.
Reform of Teacher Preparation
With attention directed toward teaching strategies as well as curriculum in K-12 education, at the university level there has been less attention to pedagogy and more attention to credits. As the Course of Study is being revised, the Teacher License Law is also being revised with major impact on college and university teacher preparation programs. Under these revisions the proportion of credits required in content areas decreases relative to the total number of credits required for graduation, while the proportion of credits related to the teaching profession (e.g. methods, psychology) increases. The practicum required for the junior high school license increases from two to four weeks. The concept of reforming how university faculty teach was considered a lofty goal.
Three years ago (i.e., in 1996), all universities were asked to decrease enrollments in teacher preparation programs by 5000 in three years with the reductions distributed as 1000 in elementary and 4000 in junior high school. Senior high school teacher preparation programs were untouched because there are few such programs (most senior high school teachers go through a junior high school teacher preparation program and receive both licenses). These reductions will result in a decrease in faculty positions. The reductions are driven by economic considerations (budget cuts) and the decreasing need for teachers due to the decreasing population of children.
New licensure requirements basically reduce the credits in subjects and increase the credits in teaching or pedagogy. In technology education, for example, the national requirements went from 20 compulsory and 20 elective credits in technology subjects to 10 compulsory and 10 elective credits. Saitama University in Tokyo is exceeding these national requirements by requiring 24 credits in compulsory courses. The same credit requirements hold for science education. Also as the number of required pedagogy credits increases, the overlap of the courses required for Elementary and Junior High School licensure allows Saitama University to grant both licenses.
Saitama University offers four licenses: kindergarten, elementary school, junior high school and senior high school. Under the old curriculum students only received one license, now they can receive both elementary and junior high school licenses. In science, students will take six credits in each of four subjects (physics, biology, chemistry and earth science) for a total of 24 credits while the national requirement is 20. Students are required to take 124 credits to graduate. For both licenses they need 51 total education credits (less than the sum of education credits for elementary (41) plus education credits for JHS (31)). The new requirements reflect the feeling outside the university that educational skills are most important. Universities without education departments will need additional faculty to teach pedagogy courses or will have to close teacher preparation programs.
Approximately 18,000 students enter teacher preparation programs each year at national universities. After two years, the reductions still have not occurred. At one university there are plans to transfer some of the reductions in pre-service enrollments to liberal arts increasing the number of students admitted from the current level of 380 students to 475 students. The grand total of admitted students will change from 1215 to 1065 (a loss of 150 students and eight faculty.) Staff reductions are scheduled to occur during 2000, but specifics are not known because it is anticipated reductions will come from retirements and it is difficult to determine which departments will be affected by retirements. Other universities were cut more severely. For example, Fukuoka University of Education, which admits 880 students in the education department, was cut by 120. Nara University of Education, which had 220 students, was cut 50 percent.
Figures for Saitama University entering education students are as follows:
|
|
Revised per new requirements | |
| Planning to teach |
|
|
| Not planning to teach in schools |
|
|
Of the 1500 students entering Saitama each year: approximately 500 are in the education school; 100 are outside the education school and take education credits; and 900 are not in education school at all.
A professor at Saitama University commented that the quality
of university students has changed as the proportion of students
attending college has increased. He noted that, with the growth
of vocational opportunities in industry, the proportion of science
majors choosing to teach has decreased.
New teachers
We saw many examples of the supportive environment given to new teachers. New teachers are usually assigned a mentor teacher. They attend in-service training several times a year. Our visit to Renjaku Shogakko elementary school in Okazaki City provided a glimpse of the novice teacher's experience. This school has two new teachers. They do not have their own classrooms, but team-teach with an experienced teacher usually for one year. The Principal observes the teacher as do all the other teachers and they discuss the new teacher's performance and provide feedback to the new teacher. A teacher who is just below the head teacher is in charge of the new teachers. This teacher's title is "instructor for novice teachers". Five times a year the new teacher conducts classes for all teachers to watch. Every Tuesday novice teachers receive in-service training at the Aichi prefecture education center and they make a report. The Tuesday in-service is general training, not subject-specific.
A novice teacher who had graduated from the Aichi University of Education Technology Education program described how an experienced (16 years) technology teacher helps him. He has more classes (27 sessions per week) than the experienced teachers (15 sessions per week) in his school, but does not have a homeroom. He attends in-service every other week away from his school. He finds it sometimes, but not always, helpful.
The Aichi University of Education attached senior high does not have novice teachers for a variety of reasons. It costs more to provide the resources and support for novice teachers. Since the focus at this school is on student teachers, more experienced teachers are needed to work with the student teachers.
In Sapporo we had the opportunity to visit some in-service teacher seminars attended by new teachers. The Sapporo Education Research Institute (SERI) offered the seminars, a function of the Sapporo Board of Education. SERI was formed as a joint effort of the Teachers' union, the Principals' Association and the Board of Education. SERI offers 150 seminars a year. New teachers are advised to take specific seminars by their school's instructor for novice teachers. SERI tries to find out the needs of teachers and gets feedback from participants. Teachers generally want to take seminars in their majors. Some seminars involve visiting other schools to observe classes. If a teacher attends a seminar she has to arrange for other teachers to cover her classes. The teachers bring back handouts for the other teachers in their school. Participants benefit from meeting other teachers from other grades.
School operations
A number of the schools we visited were attached schools, meaning they are associated with a university of education and receive student teachers from that university. Principals of attached schools are university faculty selected by their peers and the position rotates among faculty.
Teachers usually move every three to five years, although we found this varied from school to school. In some areas the teachers' union may be consulted in decisions regarding teacher transfers. Principals also move, but usually remain at the third school they administer. Becoming a principal is considered the final stage of being a teacher. All principals, with the possible exception of those at the attached schools, were teachers first.
We asked about how a school is affected by the continuing change in principals and teachers. We were told that the basic ideas and character of the school continue. The movement of teachers is considered an opportunity to bring in new ideas. Teachers who are moved to a new school talk freely with other teachers. One teacher remarked that "talking freely is the most important thing."
Elementary schools usually have a head teacher who helps the other teachers adapt to new approaches and helps manage the school. In Sapporo, some of the experienced teachers at elementary schools are "free" teachers who work on curriculum and do not have assigned classes although occasionally they substitute for absent teachers. These teachers are preparing to become vice principals. The elementary homeroom teacher teaches all subjects. Homeroom teachers at all schools are responsible for teaching moral education. They are also responsible for communicating with parents. At the upper elementary grades (5th and 6th grade) students may be taught by different subject area teachers. At Jounan Junior High School in Tokyo, each of the science teachers we observed was teaching outside the specific science discipline in which they had majored. We were told most junior high school teachers teach all sciences: biology, chemistry, physics, and geology. Mathematics teachers teach only math.
Classroom observations
The most noticeable difference among the classes we observed was the change in instructional style from the more student-centered, group work at the elementary level to the more traditional lecture style in the high schools. In our discussions about these differences, we were told that high school teachers feel they have to provide so much knowledge to the students that there is no time for student-directed activities. In addition, teachers do not learn how to conduct group learning in the university. It is rare for high schools to open classrooms to other teachers as is done frequently at the junior high and elementary school level. One official suggested that high school teachers might learn from junior high school teachers and this was confirmed by an observation of a teacher demonstration lesson attended by several teachers from other schools. Classrooms held 35 to 40 students regardless of level or subject. Teachers were able to conduct laboratory lessons and give individual attention to students despite the large number of students in the class. Laboratories and computer labs were well equipped with fundamental equipment (balances, microscopes, Bunsen burners, etc.). Most classrooms we visited did not have computers in the classrooms, but most schools had well-equipped computer labs used by students for a variety of activities from searching for biology information on the Internet to composing music.
In our discussion about group learning we were told that the
concept of group learning is a commonly used and important technique
in Japan. The people we talked with felt this technique makes
the students more responsible for learning by themselves and enables
a teacher to manage a large class. Group learning is successful
in Japan because Japan is a very well ordered society and so are
the teachers. Grouping techniques allow students to be leaders.
Group work is seen in every part of Japanese society. For example,
the teachers' community is very cooperative and people told us
this approach is seen in business as well.
Teaching profession
We had the opportunity to attend several teachers' conferences or demonstration lessons. These conferences are an important component of the professional development of teachers, particularly for new teachers who have limited classroom experience during their pre-service years. Teachers and principals from surrounding schools within a prefecture attend a conference at a school that may last all day or for a few hours. Teachers at the conference site teach classes under the observation of the visiting teachers. Following the lesson, a discussion session is held with the demonstrating teachers providing further explanation of the lesson. A panel consisting usually of a principal and other teachers present their observations and comments, and then questions are invited from the remaining participants. We attended a teachers' conference at Nagoya Junior High School that featured a number of classes with particular focus on the new curriculum of integrated study.
Three times a year teachers in Sapporo observe other teachers teaching. Teachers go to the meeting in their discipline and in their geographical area. One of us attended a science teachers' meeting at Tsukisamu Chugakko (JHS) in Sapporo. Students were dismissed for the afternoon in all schools except in those classes that were the subject of the teachers' meeting. The focus of this science teachers' meeting was a chemistry laboratory taught by Mr. Shimizu, a teacher with seven years experience at this junior high school. The lesson was about conservation of mass. After the class, the 11 observing teachers and a few teachers from Tsukisami JHS convened in another room to discuss the lesson. The group included a principal and a teacher consultant. Shimizu had been selected by the other teachers to give the lesson. A science teacher from another JHS chaired the meeting. Shimizu began the discussion by explaining that the theme of the lesson is how to teach students to develop their thinking and to develop a scientific view of nature. The lesson will continue in the next classes. He feels it is important to let the students' interests continue to the next class so he always tells them about the next class, what is expected. The students in his class are good; most of them are interested in science. He knew in September he would have to give a lesson for the other teachers and he prepared a special lesson for the meeting after looking at the science curriculum. He finds that if he tells the students more than a couple of things about the experiment they will forget so he tells them only one or two important things. He wrote the lesson and deliberately chose chemicals that would capture the students' interest. Usually when teachers teach this kind of chemistry they use data in a book, but he explained it is better to use students' data. In the next class he will use model atoms. He wants the students to think about today's experiment.
Participants' comments represented a range of observations and questions and reveal the reasons for attending the conference and what some gained by observing the class. Samples of the comments follow:
Questions ranged from strategies for selecting student groups to the best practice in using Bunsen burners. Participants distributed handouts and exchanged instructional strategies.
Another teachers' conference focussed on team teaching. Hiraoka Koen Shogakko elementary school in Sapporo had been asked to pilot team teaching by the Board of Education's Sapporo Educational Research Institute (SERI). Several teachers from other schools were attending a meeting at the school to observe team teaching of a 5th grade mathematics class. The team consisted of four homeroom teachers and three "free" teachers. This was a seminar offered by SERI. The class began with all four 5th grades combined in one large room (150 students). One of the teachers explained the lesson. The objective was to measure the area of a trapezoid and then find the formula for measuring the area. The students returned to their classrooms and were told to select pieces of paper with trapezoid figures drawn on grid paper and to use these to find the area of the trapezoid, using two and cutting out the shapes. Each student was to work independently and to choose his own way to calculate the area. They were to write down the steps and then the formula. The homeroom teacher circulated among the children, pausing to see how the students were doing. Observing teachers also circulated. The students in each class were then regrouped according to how they had performed on the assignment.
At the discussion session, the team teachers commented on the
experience. From the many planning sessions, the team had learned
about each other's teaching styles. Some students reported that
the method helped them understand the lesson better. A teacher
on the team who was a literature major said she was not good at
teaching mathematics or science and team teaching helped her because
she could follow other teachers. She had increased her confidence
in teaching mathematics. Another teacher who was a second year
teacher commented that she had questions about how to teach in
general and was able to receive help from the other teachers.
For example, when one student kept asking questions she was worried
about not paying attention to the other students. Observers commented
that team teaching enabled the teachers to address students' individual
needs. Another benefit, in addition to the increased opportunity
to interact with and learn from colleagues, is that students get
to know other teachers. The experience was particularly beneficial
to a novice teacher in that she was learning from team teaching
with experienced teachers.
Teacher consultants are employed by the Board of Education and
are involved with planning and implementing professional development.
They interview teacher candidates and visit schools. They also
teach at the university under an invited lectureship program begun
by Monbusho 10 years ago. Where there are not enough faculty
members to teach science teaching methods, for example, the university
is encouraged to use teacher consultants. Two thirds of the classes
in methods courses at Hokkaido University of Education use master
teachers and teacher consultants as invited lecturers.
Evaluation/ student assessment
A national assessment is conducted every 10 years covering grades 1-9. This provides the basis for curriculum reform. Some prefectures administer tests more often. No report on prefecture assessments is given to Monbusho since the testing is not required. The largest assessment is the high school entrance examination. Each public school in a prefecture or large city uses the same test, which includes English, Japanese, science, social studies, and math. Monbusho has decided once every 10 years is too infrequent to test so next year they will begin to test more often and will include all grades (1-12).
Monbusho is beginning to address the issue of how the new curriculum will be evaluated. It is understood that new methods of assessment will be needed to assess student creativity, attitude changes, and problem-solving ability, for example. Officials at NIER consider assessment of the new curriculum a challenge. Since a driving force behind the new curriculum was the escalating incidents of violence and "bullying", changes in these behaviors will be followed. The question of how the national examination will be changed to reflect the new curriculum has not been decided beyond the general consensus that the examination needs to be changed. The central education council recently decided to reduce the number of subjects to be included in the national examination. This action, characterized by some as a lowering of standards, is thought to be a reaction to the fact that more students are applying to private colleges that do not require as many subjects in their entrance examinations.
It was decided that the essence of the reform would be to put more humanity into education. They are just now discussing how to measure outcomes. As soon as possible they will measure the baseline. The educational research centers in each prefecture conduct research and training. Most of the research reported in the educational journals are case studies. They encompass development of a particular teaching strategy or materials, but do not include any evaluation of its effectiveness. One reason offered is that they do not want to use students as subjects in experiments. An example of the kind of research conducted in the centers is the study entitled: "Creating classroom teaching for developing profound educational attainment," listed in an annual publication of research studies that we viewed at NIER.
K-12/university connections
Universities are developing several strategies for responding to Monbusho's interest in improving university connections to K-12 communities. Faculty at Tokyo Gakugei University (TGU) indicated that, in addition to preparing high quality graduates, the university should also service teachers. Once the teachers graduate they do not have opportunities to learn about advances in science. Based on our observations of in-service training, the emphasis is on methodology rather than content. Although some teachers take graduate level courses at TGU, we learned that faculty at TGU are not involved with prefecture educational research centers.
Three years ago (1996) the third division (natural sciences) faculty at Tokyo Gakegei University wanted to know what they could do to help elementary and secondary school teachers. A symposium was held and a needs assessment of teachers was conducted by sending survey forms to 2000 teachers. Of the 500 forms returned, the main response was that teachers want to have contact with university staff. The first symposium was attended primarily by TGU natural sciences faculty (all attended) and some students. Four people from outside the university-an industry representative, primary school principal, junior high school principal, and a Monbusho official-also attended. The total attendance was 80. The university is planning to make more concrete connections to schoolteachers. A second symposium was held in 1998 and included Mr. Minoru Eda from Monbusho, a junior high school teacher who had taken graduate courses at TGU, a senior high school principal, and a faculty member from another teacher education university. Second division (education) faculty were not involved.
A faculty member explained to us that since the university has teacher training, it was interested in making connections to schools and in raising the level of teachers. This individual expressed interest in learning what American universities do to form greater connections with schools. The relationship between well-prepared teachers and well-prepared future undergraduates seems to be understood and there is concern that young people are not interested in natural sciences. The President of TGU has funds to support these efforts to improve connections between university faculty and schools. The university realizes that it is important to not just teach university students but to also give service.
Reflections on teaching
We asked a number of student teachers, novice teachers, experienced teachers and principals questions pertaining to teacher preparation, how they decided to become a teacher, and about their experiences as novice teachers. Their responses are summarized.
What was most useful about your teacher preparation program?
Most respondents indicated that student teaching was most useful. Although their university education taught them about the content area, they felt they did not learn how to teach the subject. Some commented that they learned only theory and there is a difference between theory and practice. They suggested pre-service students should have the opportunity to observe classes in many schools. Pre-service students should study how to teach and learn how to make a teaching plan.
From a new teacher at a junior high school in Sapporo:
"Most classes at the university did not help me. Only the experiences as a student teacher helped. There was one helpful class where the students did role-playing. At university there was no chance to listen to actual teachers. If there had been a chance, that would have been helpful. I had one chance one summer when I attended a seminar."
A pre-service teacher reflecting on his student teaching experience commented that it was difficult to anticipate the questions the students might ask and to set aside time for student to think and to do hands-on activities. An experienced JHS teacher commented that student teachers have the most difficulty making contact with the students. He felt they have the content knowledge.
What makes a good teacher?
Responses from principals and teachers stressed the importance of having good relations with students and being able to communicate with them. Many also mentioned the importance of knowing individual students. An experienced teacher, stressing the importance of the teacher's relation to the students, noted that the value of teachers conducting after school activities and promoting human relations in their classrooms. Recently, especially at secondary schools where students from a number of elementary schools are interacting, it has become important for the teacher to help students get along with one another. One principal considered the prestige of teachers to be an important determinant that the best students will be attracted to teaching careers. He also considered the quality of the pre-service education, in-service education and performance on the employment exam as indicators of a good teacher. Other principals valued the teacher's knowledge of subject area and continuing study of the area. Respect for the individual student's learning style, the ability to incorporate real life activities into instruction, and personal characteristics (cheerful demeanor) were also important to principals. Another principal described the qualities of a teacher she considers to be exceptional: is in good health, plays with children, prepares new materials for lessons, and other teachers learn from him.
In evaluating a new teacher, one vice principal commented that he looks for contact and good communication with students, a cheerful personality and sense of humor, and the desire to learn from other teachers. He felt it was not so important to have subject knowledge. He commented that, in Japan, teachers will have to develop the skill of teaching. They should get students to think for themselves, to watch and learn from other students by talking to other students. He felt that Japanese are not good at sharing ideas, thinking. They need to develop the ability of each student.
A mathematics teacher in Sapporo commented that mathematics teachers must know how to introduce a topic, how to explain mathematics logically. They must be able to "grasp the student's mind," as a counselor might. This teacher felt it was important for students to like their teacher and then they will be interested in his major field. This teacher reflected the philosophy behind the Japanese teacher education system with the statement: "Every day we have to develop the ability to teach."
Another experienced teacher who works with student teachers commented that, in judging a teacher, he considers how the teacher is teaching the subject and whether the students are learning and improving.
A new teacher described the qualities of teachers she admires: accept the real life of children; accept all students on their best and worst days.
Pre-service students mentioned a teacher's character should match the character of the students. One student described a good teacher as one who "gets at the same eye level the students."
Why did you want to become a teacher?
When posed to a group of technology students at Aichi University
of Education, most were planning to become teachers because they
like children or because they were inspired by a teacher they
had in the past whom they admire. Several also mentioned they
chose teaching because they like their major subject. One teacher
offered a novel reason: that teaching would provide a means for
him to continue playing his favorite sport, as he could become
a coach.
What is most difficult about being a teacher?
Technology Education students at Aichi expressed concern about their practicum, and whether their education was too narrow since it was restricted to teacher preparation. Some were concerned about whether their content knowledge was sufficient and appropriate for teaching the school curriculum.
A new teacher found the paperwork the hardest part of his job. He found writing lesson plans difficult. Another teacher commented that writing lesson plans consumed so much of his time he did not have time to pay attention to individual students. Knowing how to begin a lesson and when to end it was mentioned as a challenge. Most new teachers spent many hours at work beyond the school day.
Future study and collaborations
In our short visit to Japan we were only able to get a glimpse of the many interesting and unique aspects of teacher education in the country. We were fortunate to have been able to visit at a time when universities and schools were beginning to formulate plans to implement the new curriculum reforms adopted by Monbusho. The excellent interpreters who accompanied us throughout our visit enabled us to engage in rich discussions with those we met and greatly enhanced our visit. Upon our return we shared our findings with education researchers Michael Padilla of the University of Georgia and Mary Ann Huntley of the National Center for Improving Science Education and discussed the possibility of collaborating on future publications regarding teacher preparation in Japan. We have also initiated an exchange of information on strategies for achieving successful connections between universities and schools by contacting NSF-funded teacher preparation projects and encouraging them to communicate with Japanese faculty seeking such information.
Of particular interest for future research studies are the many questions generated by the current reform initiatives. Areas meriting future study are:
LIST OF CONTACTS
AICHI
Host: Hidetoshi Miyakawa
Aichi University of Education
Interpreter: Chie Tsuzuki
Aichi University of Education
Yasuhiko Ito
Renjaku Shogakko
Teruyuki Kamiya
Anjo Nishi Junior High School
Shogo Kawakami
Aichi University of Education
Suzue Kawakami
Aichi University of Education
Yutaka Nakai
Aichi University of Education
Yoshiaki Takehashi
The Attached Senior High School
Aichi University of Education
TOKYO
Host: Shigehiro Asada
Saitama University
Interpreter: Yuki Hasegawa
Saitama University
William Blanpied
National Science Foundation -Tokyo Office
Minoru Eda
Monbusho
Sadao Hasegawa
Tokyo Gakugei University
Yuriko Hasegawa
Haijima Dai-san Shogakko
Taro Hatogai
National Institute for Educational Research
Kunio Iida
Tokyo Metropolitan Koishikawa Senior High School
Tomomi Kosaka
Tokyo Gakugei University
Mari Kuneida
Tsuda College
Shoichiro Machida
Saitama Fuzoku Elementary School
Tadashi Maeda
Nishioka Minami Elementary School
Shizuo Matsubara
National Institute for Educational Research
Hideo Nakamura
Shinagawa-kuritsu Jounan Junior High School
Yasushi Ogura
National Institute for Educational Research
Hiroshi Shimono
National Institute for Educational Research
Hisako Shimura
Tsuda College
Kazuko Shinohara
National Science Foundation -Tokyo Office
Kosaku Takeda
Tokyo Gakugei University
HOKKAIDO
Host: Hiroshi Usui
Hokkaido University of Education
Interpreter: Kunihiko Nakamura
Sapporo Education Research Institute
Susumu Honma
Hokkaido Sapporo Hiragishi Senior High School
Takao Ishimae
Sapporo Education Research Institute
Yasuko Iwayama
Yamahana Chugakko Junior High School
Tatsuya Mayama
Hokkaido Sapporo Hiragishi Senior High School
Takashi Nezu
Yamahana Chugakko Junior High School
Shin-ichi Numadate
Sapporo Education Research Institute
Kaziyoshi Okubo
Hokkaido University of Education
V. Junji Shimazaki
Tsukisamu Chugakko
Takashi Shirakawa
Kashiwa Chugakko
Keijiro Sugamura
Hokkaido Sapporo Kaisei Senior High School
Shuzou Tayama
Hiraoka Koen Elementary School