The National Science Foundation's Tokyo Regional Office periodically
reports on developments in Japan that are related to the Foundation's mission.
It also provides occasional reports on developments in other East Asian
countries. Tokyo Office Report Memoranda are intended to provide information for
the use of NSF program officers and policy makers; they are not statements of
NSF policy.
Science and Technology: Thriving in and For Society
The following report, prepared by the Council for Science and Technology's Discussion Group on Society and Science and Technology in the 21st Century, was submitted to the full Council and released on November 9, 2000. Although the document has not been (and is unlikely to be) officially endorsed by the Government of Japan, it is worth noting that the Chair of the Discussion Group was Dr. Hiroo Imura, who is slated to become one of two full time members of the National Council of Science and Technology Policy when that body is created on January 6 (see RM 00-18, dated December 4, 2000). This report can therefore be regarded as defining the broad context in which the new National Council will oversee implementation of the Second Science and Technology Basic Plan, scheduled to go into effect for a five year period starting on April 1, 2001.
Table of Contents
(1) Acceptance of ‘science and technology’ from the West during the Edo and Meiji periods
(3) Japanese's concept of ‘science and technology’ and its characteristics
(1)Science and technology as the foundation of culture
(2)Information society and ‘science and technology’
(3)Global society and ‘science and technology’
(4)Aging society and ‘science and technology’
(5)Environment and ‘science and technology’
(6)Securing food/water and ‘science and technology’
(7)Disaster prevention and ‘science and technology’
(8)Daily living and ‘science and technology’
(1)Politics, administration, and ‘science and technology’
(2)Diplomacy and ‘science and technology’
(3)Security and ‘science and technology’
(1)Economic growth and technical innovation
(2)Research and intellectual property rights
(3)Cooperation among industry, academia and government
(4)Regional promotion and ‘science and technology’
(5)Labor and ‘science and technology’
(1)From subdivision of academic fields to integration
(2)Developing new academic fields
(3)Creation of a new paradigm of science
(1)Setting of targets and strategies for science and technology policy
(2)Promotion of basic research and measures in important fields
(3)Correspondence to important problems
(4)Development of system and foundation
(5)Assessment of research activities
(1)Development of "knowledge" frontiers
(3)Integration of knowledge and construction of the new knowledge society
(4)Requirements to construct the new knowledge society
(1)Acceptance of 'science and technology' from the West during Edo and Meiji periods
(2)Acceptance of 'science and technology' from the United States and other countries after World War
(3)Japanese ideas on 'science and technology' and characteristics
Members of the Discussion Group on Society and Science and Technology in the 21st Century
Science and technology have remarkably progressed in the 20th century. Over the past 100 years, it is no exaggeration to say that science and technology have created change equivalent to that over the past several hundred or even several thousand years. During this period, science and technology have played an important role in the development of modern civilization, and have contributed greatly to improving the welfare of humankind and in making life more convenient.
Beginning with the principle of relativity and the quantum theory, modern physics has remarkably developed our understanding of the structure of matter, from elementary particles to the universe itself. With the introduction of the DNA double helix model, genetic research has rapidly advanced, and the identification of all nucleotide sequences of human genome has come to an end. In the field of medicine, the development and spread of prevention, diagnoses and remedies, including antibiotics, vaccinations, and image diagnostic technology such as X-rays, are permitting the treatment of infectious diseases that have plagued humankind for centuries as well as many other diseases. As a result, with our improved living environment, the average life expectancy in many countries has lengthened dramatically. In addition, the progress of transportation, such as railways, automobiles and airplanes, has expanded the range of human activity, and has created a revolution in the distribution of goods. The development of the telephone, radio and television has also provided the means to quickly disseminate information, and has resulted in the creation of mass media. First invented during the mid-20th century, computers have rapidly progressed with the development of transistors, and together with the formation of networks, we are now creating a highly sophisticated information communications society.
Most science technologies were developed in the 20th century, and today we enjoy an affluent daily life as a result of the fruits of science and technology. During the span of the 20th century, science and technology have phenomenally expanded the range of human activities in terms of time and space.
The extraordinary development of science and technology has both "bright" and "dark" sides, however. In a sense, the 20th century has been a century of war and environmental destruction. The progress of science and technology has expanded the range of war, and weapons of mass destruction, including the atomic bomb, have deprived many people of their precious lives. As well, population explosion and industrial progress have caused serious global environmental problems, such as deforestation, air and water pollution, global warming, acid rain, and destruction of the ozone layer.
The more science and technology progress, the greater the effect on mankind and society becomes. Out of this concern, a research field called "science, technology and society" was created during the 1970s.
Science and technology are expected to further progress in the 21st century. From elementary particles to the universe, our understanding of substances continues to deepen, and research into the unknown regions of the oceans and the earth continues to advance. Without question, the range of human activities is increasing. The genome of human beings and other living creatures will be deciphered, and bioscience will advance in unimaginable ways. Medicine will evolve into "individual medicine" based on the genetic code of each individual. And as a result of the progress in brain research, interest is ever increasing in how far science can actually understand the workings of the "mind." This is the reason why the 21st century may be called the "century of life." While the progress of information communication technology is difficult to predict, there is no doubt as to its serious impact on people and society. As well, there is little doubt that this type of accelerated science technological progress will increase the "dark" side if even slight mistakes are made. We see signs of the "dark" side in various problems arising today, such as crime using the Internet and complex ethical issues involving life itself. Without constructing a new relationship between science, technology, and humankind, our expectations of the 21st century will not be bright.
In this background, Council for Science and Technology established a "discussion group on society, science, and technology in the 21st century" in January 1999. This group holds repeated discussions on issues that present no easy conclusions, and not all member opinions are always in agreement. In February of this year, the results of past discussions were compiled in an interim report, and we listened to opinions as well as criticisms from many people. In response to these opinions and criticisms, we decided to compile a final report.
Our basic attitude is not to contrast ‘science and technology’ and mankind/society, but to construct a new relationship between the two. In other words, we target the integration of ‘science and technology’ and mankind/society, and ‘science and technology’ for mankind/society. To this end, we look back at science and technology, in particular, the history of science and technology in Japan, as well as examine the present situation of the relationship between science, technology, and mankind/society, and the upcoming 21st century.
Chapter 1. Progress of Science and Technology, and its Acceptance in Japan
1. Steps in the progress of science and technology
Science is derived from the Latin word scientia (to know) and has the same meaning of philosophia. Over time this word came to be used in academic fields, especially those that investigated nature. Initially, men of wealth and power engaged in science as amateurs, but by the 19th century, men began to engage in science as a profession and the word "scientist" eventually took hold.
In contrast, technology was developed by human beings in order to make life more convenient and affluent, and has a long history extending back to the dawn of humankind. Technology has been handed down from master to student, much like in the guilds in Europe. In European society during the period when guilds flourished, working with technology was considered one step lower than working in science. Science and technology were clearly different in this period.
Science began to change at the end of the 19th century. As technology was essential to enhance military power, science as the foundation of technology was considered useful. Science was not only an academic area studied simply by intellectually inquiring minds, but also was used to enhance national power, and as a result, a new type of science was developed. One major example is the path followed from the study of nuclear physics to the development of the atomic bomb. With the coming of the atomic power generation, science has attracted much interest as the bedrock of economic progress in the latter half of this century, and this tendency has becoming much clearer in recent years.
Science and technology began to integrate during the middle of this century. Science creates new technology, which in turn facilitates the progress of science, a feature that is clear in the areas of computer science and molecular biology.
Instead of "science” and “technology,” the word "science and technology" was first used in Japan as part of the national mobilization system during World War II. Later on, "science and technology" instead of "science” and “technology" was used, for example, in Science and Technology Agency, Council for Science and Technology, and Science and Technology Basic Law.
It has already been mentioned that 'science' and 'technology' were originally different in nature. However, with the integration of science and technology today, technology based on science is progressing. Based on the previous usage, we have again decided to use the word 'science and technology' in the following way. In other words, it refers to the entire integrated field of "science," "technology," and "science and technology."
‘Science and technology’ has been the foundation of civilization and culture since the dawn of history, and it has showed remarkable progress in the 20th century, which is often described as an explosion of knowledge.
Civilization in the 20th century has featured the following: 1. greater human mobility and expanded commerce as a result of developments in transportation, including railways, automobiles and airplanes. Motorization in particular is a feature of the 20th century; 2. progress of the information society due to advancements in telecommunications in the first half of the century and computers in the latter half. This has in turn led to advancements in globalization in areas such finance, distribution and information beyond national boundaries; and 3. growth of a high information society as an education society, which has expanded the number of universities and ushered in the era of life-long education. The 20th century can also be called the education century.
As well, the life expectancy of human beings has increased as a result of medical advancements, and the aging society is now upon us. In Japan, the average life span at the end of the 19th century was 42.5 years for men and 44 years for women, increasing to 77 and 84 years by the end of this century. In all developed countries, the average life expectancy has grown, prolonging the period of activity in our lives. In developing countries, the average life expectancy is still relatively short, but because of lower infant mortality rates, populations have risen dramatically. In this way, the 20th century can be viewed as a century when the range of human activities greatly expanded.
Mass media such as radio and television has developed in the 20th century and significantly affected human society. Today we watch world news at home on our television, an everyday occurrence that makes us feel that the world is growing smaller. While different cultures move in the same direction, moves to preserve the identity of traditional cultures are also observed.
In these ways, civilization in the 20th century has been more brilliant than any period experienced before. It has also created a negative side, however, such as destruction of the natural ecology, pollution, and global environmental problems as a result of increased development.
2. Japan's acceptance of ‘science and technology’
(1) Acceptance of ‘science and technology’ from the West during the Edo and Meiji periods
Modernization of Japan was achieved as a result of the Meiji Government's active and effective introduction of Western ‘science and technology’ to rapidly achieve "wealth and military strength" and "promotion of industry." Japan was the only non-Western country to modernize by the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th century. Although there were other factors behind the success of rapid modernization, such as the high literacy rate during the Edo Period, high basic ability, high level of traditional crafts, and developed social infrastructure, the acceptance of science and technology unique to Japan must not overlooked.
The national policy of the Meiji Government was to catch the West, and acceptance of ‘science and technology’ came to be based on an emphasis of the practical. Thus many achievements were seen in just a short period of time, and this acceptance led to successful modernization. On the other hand, we hear complaints that this was only an imitation of technology, and that the scientific spirit is insufficient acquired.
The introduction of advanced technologies from Europe and the United States was a quick and effective method for Japan to quickly revive from its national fatigue in the aftermath of defeat in World War II. Assisted by advanced countries, including the United States, technologies were efficiently introduced to Japan, and these technologies were combined with Japan's excellent quality control system and diligent labor force, as the result, iron and steel, home electric appliances, and automobile became Japan's core industries leading to high economic growth.
(3) Japanese's concept of ‘science and technology’ and its characteristics
It is often pointed out that the Japanese tend to ignore the basis of ‘science and technology,’ while using and applying the achievements of ‘science and technology’ effectively, and that the reason for this behavior originates in the difference between the relative view of the Japanese and the absolute thought and philosophy of Western culture.
Japanese history shows that Japan has absorbed and assimilated foreign ideas and cultures by processing and improving them in a form that meets its own country's needs. The character of Japanese culture, which tends to view things in relative ways, has effectively absorbed and practically applied Western ‘science and technology,’ but this character may not always be suited to the development of science that investigates absolute truths.
Chapter 2. Relationship between Society and ‘Science and Technology’
As history has shown, ‘science and technology’ is the foundation of civilization and culture. In modern society where ‘science and technology’ is highly advanced, the relationship between society and ‘science and technology’ is much closer and virtually inseparable, and its influence and relationship have expanded to many aspects of society. Thus it is important to analyze society's relationship with ‘science and technology’ from the perspective living, culture, politics, economy and education, as well as to clarify the social responsibilities and ethical standards of scientists and technicians, and the role and mutual relationship of groups related to ‘science and technology.’
1. Living/culture and ‘science and technology’
(1) Science and technology as the foundation of culture
Originally, culture referred to all human activities. Naturally, science as a human intellectual activity was considered as one aspect of culture. This means that science exists as one aspect of culture. People expand their understanding of nature, or enjoy joy knowing about nature, and this is also a part of culture. Society has to fully understand this. Society must understand the importance of these activities and share in their joy, as well as accept the need to assist in these activities without seeking return. Culture in the 20th century has been strongly influenced by science and technology. Unquestionably, the development of the audiovisual era, beginning with radio and television and leading to the Internet, along with affluent clothing, food and housing, and active international exchanges, has formed the foundation of culture in the 20th century. However, there is also a concern that the spiritual aspects of life have weakened because of this material affluence. In the 21st century, science will further deepen our understanding of substances, life, earth, and the universe, as well as develop information communication technologies. In addition, the construction of the foundation for a new and affluent culture is essential by blending cultural science and social science.
(2) Information society and ‘science and technology’
Computer and communication technologies have developed and integrated, resulting in today's sophisticated information communication society. The progress of computerization, such as the spread of the Internet, is expected to significantly alter human society in ways equivalent to the impact of the agricultural and industrial revolutions. In fact, computer and communication technologies are significantly affecting almost all aspects of life, from education, medical care/welfare, transportation, financial systems, commerce, to the structure of employment, consumption, and leisure.
The development of communication technology will further promote the computerization of society, and measures to reduce information disparity without damaging human relationships are important. For this purpose, the development of user-friendly technology to allow everyone to use computers is required. However, the number of instances of damage caused by computer hackers exceeds several thousand annually, domestically. These hackers abuse the network, and enter the personal computers of individuals, companies or government's system, and change data. As seen from this situation, as convenience increases as a result of the progress of networks centered on the Internet, it is clear that safety will be compromised. Therefore it is essential to take precautions to protect the privacy of individuals and to prevent crime.
(3) Global society and ‘science and technology’
The arrival of a global society will largely depend on the progress of science technologies such as transportation and communications. Inventions in transportation equipment such as railways, automobiles and airplanes have increased our travel distances while reducing travel time, and have remarkably expanded the activities of people and the exchange of products beyond national boundaries. As well, the invention of communication and broadcasting equipment, such as telephone, radio, television and computer, has allowed capital to move beyond national boundaries with ease; it has also allowed people to access information from anywhere in the world, and to communicate with people in foreign countries quickly and easily.
Among researchers in the field of natural science, the speed of globalization is conspicuous due to joint international research projects conducted through the exchange of researchers. The Internet is now being used to promote international exchanges even among the general public, and is being used to encourage international understanding among pupils and students. As such, the progress of ‘science and technology’ in assisting cross-cultural communication will be strongly requested in societies moving toward globalization.
(4) Aging society and ‘science and technology’
In Japan, the aging society and a lower birth rate are advancing at a rate unprecedented worldwide. If this rate continues, the burden on the working population will inevitably increase as social security benefits to senior citizens expand, resulting in less incentive to work and reduced consumption due to less disposable income. As such, the overall decline in social vitality is becoming a concern.
In order to minimize the burden on the working population and to maintain adequate social security system, i.e., such as medical insurance, the need to halt rising medical costs has become an urgent issue. To achieve this, opportunities for senior citizens to play a more active role must be expanded, and ensuring better health through these activities should be a basic policy, and the diagnosis and prevention of disease among seniors, along with the development of new treatments, such as gene and cell remedies, will be required. In the next century, infectious diseases are expected once again to become an important issue, and countermeasures such as preventative measures and treatment will be necessary. Needless to say, these issues cannot be completely solved by ‘science and technology’ alone, and individuals should consider changes to their lifestyle as well as work to maintain their own health.
(5) Environment and ‘science and technology’
In the past several years, global environmental problems such as global warming, destruction of the ozone layer and reduction of eco-diversity have become more evident, and solving these problems is strongly demanded. As well, in order to maintain an affluent and healthy living environment, pollution control in each region is required, along with preservation of the natural environment. Among the many artificial chemical substances that exist in the environment today, some substances such as carcinogenic materials and others such as endocrine disrupters affect humans and the eco-system. Thus it is essential to understand their presence in the environment and to scientifically clarify their effect on human health.
These environmental problems cannot be solved without the application of ‘science and technology,’ such as the measurement of chemical substances, the establishment of safety standards, the removal of contaminants, as well as ‘technology’ to create a recycling-oriented society. These problems cannot simply be resolved through the power of ‘science and technology,’ however, as it is essential that we move from a throwaway society to a recycling-style economy, and change people's perceptions and lifestyles.
(6) Securing food/water and ‘science and technology’
Securing a stable food supply is an important global issue and is included in broader security issues as food security. In recent years, population has increased explosively, mainly in developing countries, and in the mid- and long-term, there is concern that the balance of global food supply and demand may become tight. If a famine occurs, social confusion arising from it would have an immeasurable impact.
In order to increase food self-sufficiency rates as a means to prevent famine, we must develop new cultivation/breeding control technologies, enhance the productivity of agricultural land, adopt proper countermeasures to preserve our environment, and gather and preserve gene resources. Moreover, the progress of plant and animal science is essential, particularly in molecular biology. As rice is Japan's major crop, the expectations of rice plant genome analyses are very high.
In addition, ensuring safe, high quality water is essential to maintain life, and with our insufficient knowledge of fresh water, it is necessary that we better understand present conditions and how to resolve water shortages, and so ‘science and technology’ will play an important role in attaining this goal.
(7) Disaster prevention and ‘science and technology’
Protecting national public safety is an important responsibility of the government, and bolstering disaster prevention countermeasures is particularly important in Japan, a country that has suffered in the past from the devastating effects of earthquakes and other natural disasters.
To effectively undertake disaster countermeasures to protect life and property, research and development on disaster prevention and safety must be conducted. In particular, in the process of predicting and preventing natural disasters, limiting damage caused when a disaster strikes, and recovering rapidly in its aftermath, full utilization of ‘science and technology’ is important. Issues surrounding disaster prevention and safety are strongly connected to human psychology, and thus we must construct a system of technology that can guarantee the safety of our life by intermixing knowledge based on cultural, social and natural sciences. In order to minimize damage when an earthquake occurs, improved earthquake-proof construction technology and widespread construction of earthquake-proof structures are essential. Above all, it is very important for individuals to be sufficiently aware of disaster prevention measures, including participation in disaster drills.
As seen in traffic accidents, airplane crashes, and nuclear accidents, our modern science and technological civilization can cause immense harm to people if 'science and technology' is improperly handled. In this way today's modern science and technological civilization possesses an element of danger. We should not limit our thinking of disasters to only natural disasters such as earthquakes or floods but to a wide range of disasters, including those caused by human error. We must not neglect disaster prevention, efforts to limit the extent of damage, enhancement of compensation, and thorough safety control.
(8) Daily living and ‘science and technology’
We must not overlook that ‘science and technology’ significantly contributes to the improvement of our dietary life. We are now able to maintain a healthy dietary life as a result of the spread of information on nutrition and vitamins. The Japanese physique has remarkably improved in the post-war period because of the consumption of highly nutritious foods based on scientific knowledge. In turn, Americans and Europeans are now paying closer attention to Japanese foods due to greater appreciation of good nutritional balance and low calories. In this way, scientific knowledge on nutrition is spreading throughout the world and affecting the dietary culture. On the other hand, we are able to import and consume foods from all over the world because of transportation developments and the progress of freezing and refrigeration technology that allows us to preserve foods for longer periods of time. As well, electric refrigerators enable us to preserve food at home, while microwave and gas ovens reduce the time required for cooking. ‘Science and technology’ is involved in all processes of food manufacturing, distribution, preservation, and food preparation, and it brings significant benefits to our dietary life.
In terms of living, the invention of lighting fixtures has expanded our activities at night, while air conditioners and heaters allow us to enjoy comfortable indoor temperatures regardless of the outside environment.
Railways, automobiles and airplanes significantly reduce travel time and remarkably promote and enhance leisure activities. Televisions and computers enhance our culture and leisure time as well.
In these ways, the progress of ‘science and technology’ has benefited all aspects of our daily life, from diet to leisure, as well as significantly contributed to reducing the disparity between developed and developing countries and between urban and rural living. Needless to say, we must not overlook the fact that the penetration of 'science and technology' in society has significantly affected the lifestyle and thinking of human beings.
The penetration of ‘science and technology’ in our daily life will continue to improve our lifestyles as a result of greater convenience for those people who can operate and use them; inconveniences may arise otherwise. Thus it is time to pay sufficient attention to the relationship between daily living and ‘science and technology.’
2. Politics and science and technology
(1) Politics, administration, and ‘science and technology’
The progress of ‘science and technology’ significantly affects society as its involvement in various national policies deepens. For example, when examining the wisdom of applying cloning technology to human beings, decisions have to be made after lengthy discussions on how ‘science and technology’ will affect the natural world and human society when applying science and technology. And thus it is important to fully understand the intentions of the international community as well.
As science and technology increasingly becomes a political issue, policy decision-making is also becoming a more difficult problem. The government has to appropriately distribute limited resources and strategically promote important research fields. Science and technology is advancing at a rapid pace, and its contents are sophisticated. This means that the input of scientists is indispensable in determining policies. Therefore the role played by Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office is a significant one. Scientists should also actively voice their opinions mainly through academic societies and associations. Another important point is to reflect on the intentions of the public in regard to these policies. As a specific method, with increasing the transparency of policy-making, the government should strive to understand the opinions of the general public through various opportunities. In addition, in order for the public to correctly understand science and technology and make rational and subjective judgements, a diverse yet profound national consensus on science and technology must be established.
The progress of science and technology, such as life science and information communication technology over the past several years, may have negative consequences on society, however, and the government must look carefully into the future and take the appropriate countermeasures. In terms of items to be regulated, enactment of legislation will be required after fully considering public opinion.
When investment in science and technology increases from the state budget, the responsibility of research institutions and researchers becomes accordingly heavier. The independence of research institutions is essential in order to guarantee freedom of research; however, in order to achieve accountability, research institutions must inspect and assess themselves, and these results should be announced publicly. In addition, these institutions must be evaluated externally by a third party.
In terms of research cost, the competition for funds is expected to increase significantly in the future, and it is therefore essential to establish a competitive research environment in which to conduct creative high level research from a global perspective. In order to allocate competitive research funds, research evaluations must be conducted in fair manner before and after research activities begin.
Government organizations are responsible for evaluating various science and technology policies. Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office and relevant ministries and agencies must create an appropriate assessment system to allocate research funds through the results of regular assessments.
(2) Diplomacy and ‘science and technology’
At the 8th summit (Versailles Summit) in 1982, ‘science and technology’ was placed on the discussion agenda for the first time; at the UN Environmental Development Conference in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro (what is called the Earth Summit), many countries have signed the UN Convention on the Framework on Climate Change. As seen in these examples, the intentions of scientists are reflected in politics, and the opportunities to discuss issues related to science and technology are rapidly increasing in international politics. During the Okinawa Summit in July 2000, life sciences such as human genome, gene modification, and use of information communications were discussed as major agenda items, and problems related to science and technology dominated the topic issues. This shows that science and technology is now taking priority even in diplomacy.
International conferences on ‘science and technology’ are held frequently, and large-scale international projects such as the international space station are moving forward. This reflects the globalization of ‘science and technology,’ and it can be said that science research plays a role to forming new international orders. Based on this global situation, Japan should take the initiative in providing resources to promote and implement joint research, and should take an active role in staging international conferences. Through these activities, Japan will be able to demonstrate an intellectual presence, and will be able to play a more important role in the area of diplomacy.
Science and technology is the foundation of human intellectual activities, and its achievements are the assets of all humankind. Japan can gain the trust and respect of other countries and can occupy an important position in the international community by actively supporting scientific and technological activities and by making contributions to global society.
In this point of view, Japan is active in international cooperation activities by combating disease and disasters, devising environmental countermeasure, and providing solutions to food and water problems through ‘science and technology.’ In addition Japan plays a major ‘science and technology’ role in the UN and OECD. At the 13th summit (Venice Summit) in 1987, Japan proposed the Human Frontier Science Program, which is being implemented with the participation of many developed countries. As well, Japan is conducting joint research through ‘science and technology’ cooperation agreements with many countries.
Thus it is essential for Japan to cooperate with other countries. In particular, Japan plays a vital role related to ‘science and technology’ in Asia. Japan should contribute to the promotion of ‘science and technology’ throughout the Asian region, and methods to achieve this goal must be examined.
(3) Security and ‘science and technology’
The relationship between ‘science and technology’ and international politics/security is very important; but this relationship has not been sufficiently discussed in Japan. When considering national security, we must be aware that higher levels of ‘science and technology’ will have a decisive impact.
Technology related to information will be very important not only to protect information against computer hackers, but also for national security in a broader sense. When the intellectual property rights of a country affect issues of national security, this subject can deteriorate into complicated political issues. Thus ‘science and technology’ and security must be understood comprehensively, including issues of politics, economy, diplomacy, law, environment, and food.
Aided by the rapid progress in ‘science and technology,’ the menace of nuclear, biological and chemical terrorism has increased worldwide. The sarin gas subway incident in Japan is a shocking example of this menace becoming a reality. We must create countermeasures using the latest ‘science and technology’ in order to prevent terrorism from using the achievements of ‘science and technology.’ In addition, it is time to consider ‘science and technology’ based on its relationship with security in a broader sense, including the reappearance of infectious diseases and new diseases coming from foreign countries.
‘Science and technology’ has penetrated society and is essential today. If people handling technology make an error, or if technology is used to commit crime, serious harm may occur to large numbers of people. As such, the concept of security must be expanded from the nation to the individual, and the "security of humankind" must be examined as well.
3. Economy and ‘science and technology’
(1) Economic growth and technical innovation
The role of technological innovation is very important in maintaining the steadiness and sustainability of economic growth, along with increasing productivity through technological progress by expanding research and development.
Because of restrictive factors, such as global environmental problems and finite resources, it is difficult to expect high economic growth in the 21st century. In addition, the aging society will continue to advance due to the declining birthrate in Japan, which will in turn reduce the number of productive workers and the national savings rate. Consequently, a drop in latent future growth is inevitable. In order for Japan to overcome this decline in latent growth, and to sustain an acceptable level of economic growth, the role of technological innovation is sure to become increasingly important.
The national government must implement research and development projects in strategically important areas from the viewpoint of economic policies. When considering innovative systems to achieve this goal, the role of universities and national institutions with their many excellent researchers conducting advanced research will be very important.
(2) Research and intellectual property rights
As ‘science and technology’ is the foundation of industrial progress, each company must provide low-priced, high-quality products to consumers in order to maintain and increase their industrial competitiveness. To achieve this, ceaseless research and development is essential.
One important factor when developing new technology and new products based on research achievements is intellectual property rights, such as patents. As patent systems differ in each country, for example, some countries give priority to the creation of inventions, while others give priority to faster application, these differences can cause a variety of problems.
In the future, discussions at international conferences are required to examine what should be patent targets, how we should deal with implementing patents beyond national boundaries, etc. ,including the judicial system, so that internationally coordinated rules regarding intellectual property rights can be created.
Currently, international research projects analyzing human genome are being conducted through cooperation with Japan, the U.S. and European countries. On the other hand, venture companies are involved in similar projects and are proceeding at a quicker pace than these international projects. Without immediately establishing international regulations, a small number of companies involved in these types of projects will be able to monopolize patents in this area, which may hinder human genome research and its application in Japan, particularly in medical care involving genome. Some people believe that human genome is a common asset of humankind and is not compatible with the idea of patents; others believe that identifying gene functions should be patentable, though only determining the base sequence should not be. This issue requires coordination at an early stage at the international level.
Fundamentally, knowledge is something that should be shared by all people. At the same time, the achievement of study does not always immediately lead to new technologies or new products. Knowledge-based industries will become increasingly important to maintain industrial competitiveness and stable employment, and therefore the protection of intellectual property rights is essential. To promote the development of new technologies and new products, a system to provide research incentives should be created. In terms of patent ownership, appropriate consideration of the potential application of a patent is essential. When researchers publish their work, patent applications should be allowed at the same time whenever necessary. The protection of intellectual property rights should be considered in this way.
The biotechnology field and the information communication technology field, such a field as which research results often lead to new technology and new product development, will increase in importance. While the role of intellectual property rights is emphasized further, acquiring larger numbers of high quality patents will be a potential source of company development and overall industrial competitiveness of the country.
The system of intellectual property rights in the 20th century is based on incentives to inventors, and this aspect is very important. On the other hand, there are open-source movements, such as LINUX, that work to prevent the monopoly of knowledge, and knowledge is disclosed without cost. With the manufacture of products based on knowledge, results desired by consumers can be attained. Therefore, issues related to the execution of intellectual property rights are also essential in the future.
(3) Cooperation among industry, academia and government
In recent years, the process from unique basic research to technical development has shortened, and feedback within this process has become more important. Thus, active promotion of cooperation among industry, academia, and government is essential. The objective of a university is the discovery of knowledge, and independence is an essential requirement to achieve this objective. On the other hand, the industrial sector tries to use human resources and "seeds" of universities effectively. Both have different objectives, and therefore casual cooperation may spoil a university or disappoint a company. A fruitful relationship must be established between universities and industry, while deepening their mutual understanding and steady efforts over the long term. As long as industry in the 21st century is based on knowledge, application of this knowledge through cooperation among industry, academia and government will be essential. Therefore, the establishment of an excellent cooperation system is demanded.
The exchange of knowledge, however, is only one essential factor in cooperation among industry, academia and government; the exchange of human resources is also essential. Therefore, university professors have been permitted to assume corporate executive positions under stipulated conditions since April 2000. As well, disadvantages have to be minimized when researchers move to areas beyond their field of study.
One reason to promote cooperation among industry, academia and government, from the viewpoint of the industrial sector, is the socio-economic advantages accrued, as universities and other institutions are treasure chests for seeds, including technical seeds for potential patents and human resources. Therefore it is essential to consider the kind of cooperation that is most desirable. Universities should strive towards basic fundamental research. On top of this research various technical flowers will bloom, and industry based on science will develop. The creation of such an environment is desirable.
On the other hand, cooperation among industry, academia and government is an effective system for universities to return the fruits of research to society as a whole. As well, cooperation is also effective in obtaining the understanding and assistance of the public for universities. Therefore, joint research should be further promoted to facilitate the development of new technologies and businesses, as a wide range of advanced research and corporate needs match. Therefore it is essential to develop coordinators to link the seeds of universities with the needs of companies.
Venture businesses are one important form of the application and commercialization of knowledge. It is difficult for research institution and university researchers to begin venture businesses in Japan utilizing their knowledge, because of the lack of capital, scarcity of job opportunities if the business fails, and lack of an adventurous entrepreneurial spirit. While it is difficult to overcome these limitations, the creation of an environment to encourage the start of new businesses is essential, along with inspiring a spirit of independence and teaching start-up business methods to young people attending university. The government should take the necessary steps to ensure this
Traditionally, academics in Japan have shown less interest in intellectual property rights, and the system to protect these rights has been inadequate. The University Technical Transfer Promotion Law was established in 1998, and 16 Technology Licensing Office (TLO) have been approved (as of September 2000). TLOs acquire patents based on university research achievements and facilitate the transfer of technology to companies. As can be seen, the move to acquire intellectual property rights is presently active, and we hope that many more TLOs will be established in the future.
(4) Regional promotion and ‘science and technology’
Traditionally, the relationship between economic activities in the industrial sector and research activities at universities and national institutions has been weak in Japan. In recent years, the relationship has become closer, and cooperation through ‘science and technology’ has become very important in regional promotion.
In the United States, the relationship between the industrial sector and universities has been close for some time, and university professors often establish venture companies or hold outside positions. Thus the concentration of high tech ventures centered on universities can be found in various locations. Silicon Valley has become a major base for the information communication industry as a result of advanced university research achievements leading to the creation of new businesses, which has also led to regional promotion.
Japan has to directly face the world as a result of the progress of economic globalization, in addition to the rapid development of information and communications technologies. Linking the research achievements of universities and national research institutions with business opportunity is becoming essential for Japanese companies to maintain their international competitiveness. It is essential to create "Sophiopolis," or locations where venture companies and company research centers can gather centered on universities and national research institutions, instead of industrial complexes centered on production facilities. Universities are established throughout the nation and function as regional cores. It is essential to promote cooperation with relevant institutions by strengthening the functions of these universities. National research institutions and special corporation research institutions should not be concentrated in particular areas. 'Science and technology' should be used to promote regional development through active support of governments in the form for constructing sophiopolis in local areas.
At the same time, the Local Fiscal Reconstruction Promotion Special Measures Law prohibits local governments from making donations to national universities. This law should be revised in the future to promote closer cooperation between national universities and regional society, in terms of the contribution of national universities to regional society, including development of regional industries and economies.
(5) Labor and ‘science and technology’
The progress of ‘science and technology’ has affected labor in important ways. Although technical innovation creates new job opportunities, there are many examples in which technical innovation has eliminated existing jobs and caused unemployment problems. During the industrial revolution in England, a group of workers began a movement to destroy machines (Luddite Movement) as a demonstration of their strong opposition to the loss of jobs caused by the introduction of machinery.
Today industrial robots are widely used in automobile factories. Robots as an achievement of ‘science and technology’ are not considered as a threat to human workers, but are thought to be a substitute to perform dangerous operations. The thinking of workers today has greatly changed, and now workers are willing to coexist with robots. When mechanization and automation are introduced to factories and offices as a result of the progress of ‘science and technology,’ workers performing simple operations will no longer be necessary. However, even though technical training is often offered to these workers within the company or they are transferred to other sections, unemployment cannot always be unavoidable. While the invention of railways, automobiles and airplane put carriage drivers and rickshaw operators out of business, new employment opportunities have been created such as bus and cab drivers and pilots. The spread of personal computers has eliminated typeset, but in turn requires a large number of system engineers.
In these ways, the progress of ‘science and technology’ is releasing workers from simple, heavy and dangerous tasks, and work now requires higher skills and knowledge. As the ability to drive a car and to operate a personal computer are becoming essential for many people, workers will be required to possess ‘science and technology’ skills commonplace in society. In addition, self-enrichment is becoming increasingly important to increase one's value.
The rapid progress of computerization in recent years has elevated our ability to utilize information as one of the most important skills. Thus as technical innovation accelerates, our abilities and skills required for labor also rapidly change. As such, it is clear that work skill development will become increasingly important.
Changes in the structure of industry and employment as a result of technical innovation, including of the advancement of computerization, have begun to affect life-long employment, which is unique Japanese postwar employment practice. General skills can be acquired through in-house training, but it is difficult to acquire specialized skills in the same way within a company, and time to acquire these skills is also required. Therefore, a highly fluid labor market may be demanded.
4. Education and ‘science and technology’
Needless to say, the goal of education is to develop human beings who respect independence and who are healthy physically and psychologically. Education covers a wide range of areas, and in order to construct a creative country based on ‘science and technology’ through the promotion of ‘science and technology,’ it is important to develop creative human resources.
Unless the fertility rate (average number of children borne by a woman during her lifetime) improves from the current less than two children per woman, Japan in the 21st century will begin to decline in population, and the number of young people engaged in ‘science and technology’ will inevitably decrease. In this situation, the types and numbers of human resources will be key issues, along with how and where human resources will be allocated, regardless of public and private sector interests.
In the 21st century where internationalization and computerization are expected to progress, development of skills to fully use English as an international language will be demanded, along with skills to use and apply information. The enhancement of education to achieve this is also of great importance.
(a) Present academic ability
In recent years, it has been pointed out that the younger generation is unwilling to study ‘science and technology,’ science, or science engineering. Furthermore, there is strong concern that their overall academic ability is declining.
However, according to international surveys comparing mathematics and science abilities of junior high school students, Japan continues to occupy a top level. Still, the number of students who enjoy these subjects is smaller compared with students in foreign countries, and it is said that Japanese people are not good at thinking from various perspectives.
With regard to the deteriorating academic ability of university students, data to substantiate this claim does not exist as yet. It is pointed out that the average academic ability of current university students is lower today. It is also pointed out that the enthusiasm, interest, motivation and preparedness for learning are poorer than before.
The ratio of students moving on the higher education has increased and is popularizing higher education. The content of high school curriculums is also more diversified today. Accordingly, universities need to accurately understand the changes occurring among the student population, as well as actively provide information on the subjects required for study before entering university. Universities should be active in other efforts as well, such as testing academic ability in those high school subjects required for students to attend university during the student selection process, and teaching the basis of university education according to the academic history of the students entering university.
Needless to say, it is desirable for high school students to select a university based on the concrete image of their own future goals.
(b) Enhancement of elementary and secondary education
For the purpose of promoting 'science and technology,' it is important to acquire the habit of thinking about science and society from an early age. It is also essential to prevent disinterest in science and scientific knowledge by enhancing education to arouse interest in 'science and technology.'
In order to achieve this, it is essential for elementary and secondary education to impart basic knowledge by preparing appropriate learning materials, including textbooks. As well, experiments and hands-on experience should be emphasized along with problem-solving skills based on independent voluntary learning and thinking. With regard to the scientific grounding of children, it is important to develop the ability and attitude to survey scientifically through experimentation and observation, as well as develop a scientific view and way of thinking. As well, for students to become aware of the importance of ‘science and technology,’ and to widely disseminate scientific knowledge, opportunities to study ‘science and technology’ should be widely provided.
At the stage of elementary and secondary education, whether or not a student develops interest in science will largely depend on the instruction methods of teachers, and to this end teachers should have practical instruction abilities based on a wide general education background. For example, teaching about nature that is familiar to students and utilizing community facilities are effective methods.
Teachers required today are those who can increase students' interest in science; in other words, teachers who can listen to simple questions from their students and think together with their students. In order to increase the interest in science, teachers must improve their instruction methods, and thus greater retraining opportunities for teachers are essential.
Furthermore, with the introduction of a 5-day school week, students will spend more time outside of school, so it is very important to develop an environment where students can expand their interest in ‘science and technology’ by participating in various experiments or through hands-on experience at museums and science museums.
As Japanese people live in an international society, efforts are made to expand our communication ability in foreign languages, particularly in English. As well, in order to develop human resources that meet today's sophisticated information communication society, lessons using computers are incorporated from elementary school. By the end of high school education, we must develop information literacy of young people who can understand the essence of information technology, instead of simply teaching skills to use computers.
(c) Enhancement of higher education
Today, almost 50% of high school graduates enters university. The restructuring of educational content and educational research organizations is requested in general and specialized education and at undergraduate and graduate schools.
As part of this restructuring, universities must consider the following: circumstances are very different between the faculties, from which most students graduate before beginning employment, and the faculties, from which most students go on to graduate school depending on the faculty. The development of academic fields that integrate the humanities and science will also be requested in the future, and the enhancement of educational research activities and organizations for cultural and social sciences will become essential, in addition to 'natural science.'
Japan's public financial expenditure in higher education is lower than in other developed countries. An increase of public funds in this area is requested, as institutions of higher education serve to develop human resources and to promote academic research increase, a solid fiscal foundation will be required.
While society becomes more sophisticated and complex, including the progress of academic research and 'science and technology,' undergraduate education should further focus on general education, while organically coordinating with specialized education at graduate school. This type of education should be implemented from the perspective of realizing the goals of general education, which are "to expand the range of learning and the ability to see different viewpoints, and to develop the ability for independent broad-based thinking, accurate judgement, and deeper humanity, in order to develop human resources that view life and knowledge in relation to society." Studying philosophy that deepens our understanding of human beings through logical questioning is important during general education as the basis of knowledge for future scientists. It is essential to establish opportunities for students in the humanities to study the basis of natural science in order to develop science literacy. As well, students in science faculties should acquire a wider range of basic knowledge about natural science and should study humanities and society as well. As the 21st century is called the century of life, efforts based on the importance of biology are increasingly important.
During undergraduate education, the evaluation of learning experiences beyond academic institutions is important by incorporating outside learning activities, as seen in the United States.
Graduate MA programs should be improved to allow students to fully acquire specialized knowledge through course work. In particular, specialized MA programs should develop human resources, that is, experts who can play an active role in society immediately after completing their practical course work. On the other hand, the development of abilities is important in Ph.D. programs; however, the imbalance of knowledge of students who complete Ph.D. programs in Japan has been pointed out, and thus consideration should be given to acquiring a wider range of knowledge, with emphasis on education.
In order to improve the quality of university education by changing the awareness of university professors as educators as well as researchers, both research results and educational activities of university professors should be evaluated. This will contribute to improving lessons and instruction methods of university professors.
In order to promote 'science and technology,' an increase in the general public's understanding, trust and support of science and technology is crucial. But as a result of the progress of science and technology, technologies have become more complicated. This situation has resulted in many accidents because of defective products, or the mishandling of products, which in turn has increased the public's distrust of science and technology. In particular, when individuals involved in science and technology act unethically, or fail to give due consideration to ethics, public distrust only increases, and this may place science and technology in a difficult position. Because of this, people involved in science and technology must always pay close attention to ethical issues and make greater efforts to deepen their understanding of the nation. In order to deepen the understanding of the public, scientists have to explain not only the contents and benefits of science and technology, but also the risks in a simple way. In particular, with the remarkable progress of science and technology in recent years, understanding in this area has not always been easy, giving rise to a wider gap in the disparity of knowledge between people working in scientific and technological fields and the general public.
The interest of the public, including children, in 'science and technology' should be aroused through all possible means, along with increased understanding of the elements important to daily living, in order to develop 'science and technology' in Japan.
Governments must provide various opportunities for the public to stimulate their interest in 'science and technology' as an everyday matter. The functions of science museums and the training of curators should be enhanced to this end. In addition, governments are obliged to continuously explain 'science and technology' to ensure trust and support of the public.
The rapid progress and greater sophistication of 'science and technology' seriously affects employment opportunities, which means that the public must strive to continually acquire the latest scientific and technical knowledge. Learning opportunities that meet the demands of the public must be improved and increased. Universities should enhance their function as life-long education institutions in order to meet the needs of the public.
5. Social responsibility and ethics of people working in scientific and technological fields
'Science and technology' exists within society as social activities conducted by groups, and receives public support through the allocation of public funds by the national government. And as 'science and technology' has a serious impact on overall society, the public must question its position and values within society.
International declarations and charters, which can serve as models, stipulate the responsibilities and ethics of scientists as follows. "The social responsibilities of scientists include respect for science, maintaining a high level of quality control, sharing of knowledge, communication with the general public, and education of the young. Science curriculums should include the ethics of science." "Declaration on the Use of Science and Scientific Knowledge" adopted in Budapest at the International Science Conference on July 1, 1999, stated the above.
As well, "scientists must assume the responsibility to maintain and develop science, while scientists and the general public must assume responsibility for the use of science." "Scientists also have the responsibility to point out aspects that ignorance or abuse of scientific knowledge is harmful to society." These points were stipulated by the World Scientists' Alliance in the "Scientists' Charter" established at the 3rd general meeting in 1953
In the United States, ethics education for technicians is very active. The textbook used at most universities publishes the following example: The space shuttle exploded immediately after its launch in 1986, but a technician concerned about safety prior to the launch had advised his superior that the shuttle launch should be postponed. He felt it was his responsibility to protect public safety, including safety of the astronauts.
It is essential for scientists and technicians to be aware of their ethical responsibilities, which means assuming responsibility to protect society and public interests beyond the interests of their own organization. In order to reduce conflicts of interest between organizations and the public, a social system must be constructed to allow scientists and technicians to easily assume their ethical responsibilities.
It is said that high ethics and thorough quality assurance by technicians and workers have led Japanese industrial technology to the top. However, as seen by the recent radiation leakage accident at a nuclear power plant, and falling concrete in bullet train tunnels, if the trend to ignore public safety spreads due to the priority given to cost reductions, very serious problems may arise. In order to rehabilitate Japanese noble ethics and social safety, which are a tradition in Japan, and regain trust of the country based on technology, stricter implementation of ethical education for technicians and safety countermeasures is a critical issue.
6. Role of groups related to 'science and technology' and mutual relation
Society is comprised of many different groups, including scientific and technological communities centered on scientists and technicians, governments that indirectly support scientific and technological communities, the general public that enjoy the achievements of 'science and technology' and are affected by it, and the media, including science journalism, which bridge scientific and technological communities and the general public. The creation of a desirable relation between society and 'science and technology' as these groups interact is the key to developing a scientific and technological system in the 21st century.
(a) Scientific and technological communities of people working in scientific and technological fields
When it comes to science and research, discussions tend to be held among professional researchers and research discussions tend to be conducted only by experts. As well, 'science and technology' is becoming like a black box for the general public. The image of enlightenment has weakened, and 'science and technology' is moving away from the general public. But wide-ranging public support is essential in the development of 'science and technology,' and researchers must work to correctly inform the public of their research results.
Researchers are expected to discover knowledge that will be the foundation of social development, as well as to convey the impact of these achievements to society. When conveying their results, researchers must deepen the common understanding of the general public by explaining in a simplified manner through dialogue, instead of assuming that the public can always understand what they say.
Societal concerns and suspicions have recently increased because of the progress of science and technology. Examples of this include the controversies surrounding cloning and genetically modified organisms (GMO). Researchers should provide the general public with accurate knowledge related to these problems, and they should cooperate by allowing the public to participate in the formulation of scientific judgements. Academic societies and associations comprised of researchers should take an active role in society, instead of simply working in their own field. During an international conference held in Asilomar, California, in 1975, researchers discussed the safety of the recently developed DNA modification technology with journalists, and guidelines on DNA modification testing were drawn up. Researchers raised concerns about the safety of this new technology, and they created independent regulations to govern their research. This attempt was innovative. The expectations of society regarding these types of voluntary activities by researchers are increasing.
For healthy development of the scientific and technological community, the opportunities for female researchers to take an active role must be increased. To this end, the awareness of overall society must change to facilitate the participation of women in research fields. In addition, developing a system to assist female researchers is important for the future development of science and technology, and can contribute to realizing a society in which both men and women actively participate.
(b) Governments
It is important for governments to work harder to develop an environment where scientific and technological communities are able to create scientific and technological achievements. In addition, governments must be able to look ahead by fully using scientific knowledge in their administrative decisions.
One effective method to arouse public interest is to have the Prime Minister inform the public when an important discovery or invention in 'science and technology' is made. This means that advisors to the Prime Minister must have an understanding of 'science and technology, ' and thus expectations toward Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office are high.
As well, efforts to absorb knowledge by soliciting general opinions on 'science and technology' and technical development proposals are important.
(c) General public
The general public enjoys the achievements of 'science and technology.' As 'science and technology' is deeply involved in our daily lives in various forms, the opportunities for each person to make individual decisions whether or not are expected to increase. As such, the public must work to increase their scientific knowledge. The public should not only enjoy the achievements, but should also actively express its expectations and concerns about 'science and technology.' This will have a positive impact on the activities of scientific and technological communities.
In terms of this point, some nongovernmental organizations and nonprofit organizations are actively involved in various certification systems based on their own scientific knowledge. We are beginning to see signs of community power and the power of independent groups linked with 'science and technology,' and excellent results can be expected regarding environmental problems in these communities. Attention should also be paid to the lay-expertise. These active roles played by NGOs will assume greater importance in the future in a mature society.
The "Consensus Conference" introduced by Denmark in 1987 was a conference where the general public judged how science and technology would be adopted or regulated in society based on the information provided by experts. Recently, Japan has also introduced this attempt to discuss problems such as GMO.
(d) Science journalism
To promote and educate the public about 'science and technology' and to increase the level of social debate on the present situation surrounding 'science and technology,' mutual criticism between academic societies and society itself is required. The general public's source of information on 'science and technology' is overwhelming mass media such as television and newspapers. Therefore the role of science journalism, which not only bridges scientific and technological communities and society and conveys information to the public, but also criticizes and makes proposals related to 'science and technology, ' is ever increasing.
‘Science and technology' is constantly advancing, but once the general public has the impression that it is moving away from them, they tend to lose interest. In order for the general public to maintain its interest in 'science and technology' and to make their own informed judgements on issues related to 'science and technology,' it is essential to simply explain difficult scientific issues. The media are expected to report the latest discoveries to link them with public life, such as genome analysis, gene remedy, and genetically modified food.
Chapter 3. 'Science and Technology' as it ought to be in the 21st Century
1. Reconstruction of knowledge and new systemization
(1) From subdivision of academic fields to integration
In the 20th century, particularly in the latter half of the 20th century, academic fields have advanced through specialization and subdivision. The word science originates from "divisional sciences," and natural science has shown a tendency toward subdivision. To achieve objective and persuasive conclusions, scientists often limited the range of their research and selected a simplified system within the range of their work. Scientists excluded items that were ambiguous and unquantifiable, and they used scientific methodology to attain results. This narrow perspective deprives scientists of a broader view of other academic fields, however, and researchers no longer understand the position of their own research within the wide range of academic fields. As a result, the number of researchers with little knowledge about other areas, and with little interest in the impact of 'science and technology' on society, has increased, even though they possess high knowledge and skills in their own specialized area.
This phenomenon is also common to some degree in the cultural and social sciences. Many scholars select a particular subdivision and achieve remarkable results in their own field. Research with a broad vision, or research as the beginning of a new paradigm, is difficult to pursue. A more serious problem is that cultural and social sciences, once focused on people and society, are alienated from society today. Some critics point out that cultural and social sciences in Japan do not always deal with the many issues that have arisen in modern society as a result of changes in the world over the past 10 years.
Without a doubt, reorganization and integration of academic fields are desirable. We have to organize and reconstruct the enormous volume of knowledge accumulated throughout the 20th century.
One of the examples lies in genome science. The base sequence of genome (a set of chromosomes) of more than 40 living creatures have been discovered, and it is accepted that all genetic structures share common features. Human genome consists of three billion base pairs, and approximately 100,000 genes are believed to exist. Thus an enormous amount of information is expected to be accumulated in the future, including base sequence of these genes, similarity with genes of other living creatures (homology), mutual relationship between genes, function of genes, three-dimensional structure of proteins created by genes, gene differences in individuals (multiform), and gene disorders and diseases. It is certain that research on evolution of life and biodiversity will be better developed as a result of genome research. It will be difficult to analyze and process this enormous volume of information by conventional information processing technology. The development of new academic fields called bioinformatics is being demanded, and this field can only be developed through cooperation among researchers in various fields such as biology, chemistry, informatics, and mathematics.
The 20th century is the knowledge explosion century. People today acquire a volume of knowledge that is several times greater than what we acquired before this century. Today efforts to organize and reconstruct this knowledge are demanded, and the integration of academic fields will be impossible without doing so. One method is to have researchers in different fields challenging various issues that modern society face. There are many issues in "clinical sociology," such as the aging society, nursing care, intellectual property rights, global issues, and comprehensive research of communities. Another method is to pursue "observing study," that is, allowing researchers across different fields to address problems and their impact on society. Such attempts are demanded in the reconstruction and integration of knowledge.
In these ways it is important to consider not only scientific and technological details, but also ethics, values and the impact on society and the environment. It is also essential to have the consist of aspects that intermix natural, cultural and social sciences ,and to consider 'science and technology' in relation to people and society at all times.
Thus, support of cultural and social sciences will be important as well as natural science when promoting 'science and technology' in the future.
(2) Developing new academic fields
Obviously the reconstruction of knowledge will create new academic fields. Bioinformatics mentioned earlier is a good example. On the other hand, social needs often demand new academic fields, and examples of this include environmental science, informatics, and social ethics. Take for example environmental science: this subject covers diverse areas, including earth science that surveys global environmental changes, bioscience that surveys biodiversity and its loss, engineering that strives to develop zero emissions and recycling technology, energy science that aims to develop clean energy sources, and health science that surveys the impact of environmental pollution on the human body, along with environmental ethics and policies that comprehensively study the harmonious coexistence of the global environment and human activities. However as of today, new academic fields that integrate these areas have not been created.
Academic fields in Japan were established during the Meiji Period, and are still used in many universities and organizations today. Some of these areas are unique to Japan. Of course, new faculties under different names have been created recently, but some have not been firmly established as new academic fields. Independence in academic areas is one of the factors inhibiting progress in new research fields. Delays seen in the development of life science, informatics, and environmental science are largely a result of this. Universities must first address themselves to the issue of developing new academic fields.
(3) Creation of a new paradigm of science
Modern science views nature as separate from human existence, and based on the element reduction method, an objective and universal system of knowledge has been created. The discovery of the atom and elementary particles in physics and genes in life science based on the reduction theory can be said to be landmarks in modern science.
At the end of the 20th century, what modern science eliminates or does not target has come to have significant meaning.
One example is the logic of information systems. Modern science has dealt with linear forms, but the majority of natural phenomena such as climate and life phenomena are based on reactions of nonlinear forms. Nerve cells consisting of brain elements show typical nonlinear responses. Attempts of new methodologies such as complicated systems, fractal systems, and fluctuation are seen, and how to deal with these nonlinear forms is one of the important issues in the future.
The largest area not targeted by modern science has been human psychology or the "mind."
Generally speaking, nature is outward and understood through universal principles. As opposed to this, the mind is internal, personal and subjective. Thus psychology was not targeted by modern science, which emphasizes objectivity. However, with the progress of 'science and technology,' its relationship with people or society has become more difficult. Humans possess both body and mind, and together with the progress of 'science and technology,' contact with the mind has expanded. In other words, the number of problems that cannot be dealt with through conventional scientific methodology is increasing, and as a result, new knowledge that links substance (or body) and the mind is attracting greater attention. It is unclear whether we will be able to establish new methodologies, but the possibility of a new paradigm arising from the relationship between people and between people and nature is expected.
No doubt the world will face many difficult problems in the 21st century, and these problems will include population increases, food and water shortages, depletion of energy, and destruction of environment. In order to cope with these problems, further progress of 'science and technology' is demanded, but it is too optimistic to believe we can solve all of these problems through only the progress of 'science and technology.' We have to expand not only our knowledge but also human wisdom accumulated over time. The former is in the field of science and the latter is in psychology, and the integration of both can be said to be important for the survival of humankind in the future.
In the Orient, particularly in Japan, nature is not something to conquer but to coexist with. Loving the beauty of nature is said to be part of the wisdom of the Japanese, who live with nature. In order to solve important issues in the 21st century, a new philosophy encompassing humankind, all forms of living creatures, and the earth itself is being demanded. Japanese coexisting with nature should make a greater effort to establish an eco-philosophy (environmental philosophy), and to disseminate this philosophy throughout the world.
This type of philosophy would obviously be linked with new ethics. Intellectual curiosity and human inquiry are expected to result in active intellectual activities in the next century as well. However, together with the question "what and how much we will be able to know," questions of "what is worth knowing" and "what and how much we should know" will also be important. In other words, 'science and technology' will have to include ethical questions of "what and how much we should know" and "what we should do now."
2. Scientific and technological policies viewing society in the 21st century
Science and technology is expected to advance even more rapidly in the 21st century. In terms of basic research, without a doubt, the understanding of substances, the earth, the universe, and life itself will further deepen, while progress in medical technology is expected to contribute to better health and welfare of human beings. The arrival of a sophisticated information communications society will give rise to new culture; and will make people's mental lives more rich.
On the other hand, the issue of social security such as medical care, pensions, and welfare will become increasingly serious as a result of the aging society and declining birthrate in developed countries. In developing countries, problems such as water and food shortages, environmental destruction, and the onset of new infectious diseases may surface as a result of population increases and modernization of lifestyles. While globalization advances, the number of movements seeking independence will increase, and what we call 'the clash of civilizations' will become a concern. In addition, we cannot afford to underestimate the social, psychological and hygienic problems generated by the appearance of huge cities arising from the concentration of people in urban areas.
In order to solve these various problems that human beings will face in the 21st century, as well as to maintain sustainable, stable economic growth, the role of science and technology will certainly assume greater significance. Thus, foresight and the framework of quick decision-making are demanded in the formulation of science ad technology policies.
(1) Setting of targets and strategies for science and technology policy
Researchers at research institution conduct research in the science and technology field, and research institution must develop a free and competitive environment where individual researchers can fully display their abilities. The national government must appropriately distribute material resources to research institutions and researchers, and must play a role in promoting the development of research.
However, a more important role of the science and technology policy of the national government is to establish goals as a country and then promote science and technology policies to realize these goals. As country goals, the following can be considered: a country that can contribute globally through intellectual activities; a country that can create sustainable economic development through technical innovations; and a safe and secure country where people can live comfortably. For all of these goals, the role played by science and technology is significant.
Today, as advancements in the academic world expand and become a leading force in the economy, the state must promote with foresight research in fields that are strategically important. To this end, the role of Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office is a key one.
(2) Promotion of basic research and measures in important fields
Human beings have always sought intellectual frontiers and have continuously expanded their intellectual world. The achievements of basic research have excellent cultural value as assets shared by all human beings, as well as contribute to the development of human culture. In addition, these achievements contribute to the creation and development of industry, improve international competitiveness, solve global problems, and improve the lifestyles of people, so that the government must actively promote basic research from a long-term perspective. Great achievements can be expected from basic research only when research is conducted enthusiastically based on free ideas. Therefore it is important to respect the independence of researchers when deciding and implementing policies on science and technology. However, as learning has advanced, what we call 'big science,' meaning science requiring enormous research funding, has arrived. 'Big science' includes research on the universe, accelerators, and nuclear fusion. Recently, the field called 'big science' has also increased in the area of life science, such as human genome research and research on the cubic structure of proteins. In order to promote these fields, the state must provide the necessary strategic assistance.
As well, learning today is more specialized, and researchers tend to devote themselves solely to specialized field, which may result in the development of new fields and interdisciplinary fields. The government must pay attention to such aspects when they promote basic research.
(3) Correspondence to important problems
The world is expected to face many problems in the 21st century, but it is difficult to foresee all of these problems. But at the beginning of the 21st century, the fields that should be addressed by government policy in response to important national and social problems include information communication, life science, environmental science, research on substances and materials, along with energy, manufacturing technologies, and social infrastructures.
(a) Promotion of information communication technology
Information communication technology (IT) aims to achieve life in which people can feel the added value of the economic structure, as well as material and spiritual affluence, through the improvement of industrial productivity and living standards. Thus improvement of information literacy, development of information communication infrastructure, and system development for e-commerce are essential. In particular, Japan should address urgent themes that include (1) promotion of multimedia technology that can widely be used through Internet and satellite communication, (2) establishment of international standards in Asia, such as character codes and translation-assistance software, and (3) system development to ensure reliability and security, the necessity of which is highlighted by the Y2K problem.
Along with progress of a sophisticated information communication society, high-tech crime and violation of privacy through illegal access of information communication technology are increasing, while at the same time convenience to the public is increasing. Virtual reality and reality are becoming borderless with excessive indulgence in computer games, which is becoming a concern. As a means to deal with these "shadows" sides, computer virus countermeasures, development and spread of encryption technology, and protection of personal information have to be promoted. In order to deal with diverse problems such as ethics in cyberspace, comprehensive and cross-disciplinary research on information is essential and should include cultural, social, and natural science.
(b) Promotion of life science
Life science has advanced based solely on the reduction theory as represented by molecular biology. In the future, life science will develop together with other academic fields such as information science in order to understand comprehensively life phenomena. Especially in genome research, gene formation and network interaction analysis, decoding of the cubic structure of proteins, and research on genetic polymorphism will develop further and usher in a new era of developments in embryological and evolutionary research.
Genome research is expected to promote the analysis of diseases such as cancer and lifestyle diseases, contribute to medical care through the development of diagnoses, remedies and preventative measures, and bring applied results to new medical developments, food and environmental fields as well. Thus Japan must actively address these fields in order not to fall behind in the intensified research development competition with Europe and the United States.
Medical care in the 21st century will focus more on preventative medicine, that is, the way of keeping our health, than on treatment. And countermeasures based on gene information will have real importance. To advance genome research, it is important to analyze a large amount of genome information. This will make it possible to analyze individual aberrant genes and prepare order-made medical care for each person.
One important life science issue in the 21st century will be brain research. Undoubtedly genome research will significantly contribute to research on the brain; but this research should be conducted through various approaches such as biology, medical imagery, clinical medicine, action science, and instrument science. In addition, how well the human mind can actually be analyzed in cooperation with the field psychology will become a prominent issue.
The field of life science technology in its concern with life itself will create problems in life issues and ethics, such as gene modification, human genome analysis and cloning technology. Therefore, research must be conducted by observing various guidelines and the UNESCO Human Genome Declaration, while at the same time incorporating cultural and social science elements, including social ethical issues. As social measures, disclosure of information and promotion of knowledge and education are essential for the public.
Life science is expected to play a very important role in the future, such as deepening the understanding of life, maintaining human health, creating new industry, and maintaining life on earth.
(c) Measures for environmental and energy problems
Nobody doubts the traditional concept of the West, which contrasts nature and humankind, has greatly contributed to the progress of science and technology; but also a result, this may have caused "shadows" such as environmental destruction. The progress of modern 'science and technology' has created economic values that emphasize material affluence and speed. This in turn has brought negative sides, including destruction of natural eco-system through development, destruction of natural scenery and regional traditional culture, elimination of historic scenes in towns, global warming, acid rain, destruction of the ozone layer, reduced biodiversity, and introduction of artificial chemical substances, such as dioxins and endocrine disrupters.
As well, "20th century-style 'science and technology'" has created a "mass production, mass consumption, mass disposal-oriented society, together with market principles that give priority to efficiency. This 20th century-style 'science and technology' has also depleted the earth's resources and energy sources, such as reducing food production due to climate changes and depletion of fresh water resources, and exhausting oil energy supplies and other natural resources. It is also approaching a deadlock from the perspective of preserving the living and natural environments, including continued environmental pollution such as ocean, river and air pollution, and the lower eco-diversity due to tropical forest destruction.
For human beings to survive in the 21st century, we must move away from these negative aspects resulting from "development-oriented 'science and technology'." Instead we must promote "preservation-oriented 'science and technology'," such as preservation of environment and preservation and repair of cultural assets, rather than focus solely on development. In addition, we must shift our values from the emphasis on product value and speed to the focus on quality and affluence.
'Science and technology' in the 21st century should give sufficient consideration to health and safety in order to overcome the negative aspects of 20th century civilization and allow sustainable development of humankind. In addition, 'science and technology' must solve waste problems and global environmental problems by advancing technologies to improve energy efficiency, develop and use alternative energy sources, rehabilitate and prevent environmental pollution. Furthermore, 'science and technology' must facilitate the change in society from a "resource throw-away-style economy" to a "recycling-oriented economic society," and this must be the foundation to create a new civilization. To reduce the environmental impact of a consumption-oriented society and to shift to a recycling-oriented economic society, the concept of environmental preservation must be incorporated into the economy, and to this end the introduction of an environmental tax is worth examining.
To allow nature and humans to coexist in the 21st century, the traditional concept of Japan or Oriental, which looks at nature and people in terms of coexistence, could be a leading ideology throughout the world. As part of the efforts to solve global environmental problems, it is important to conduct research from new and comprehensive perspectives beyond existing research fields based on the analysis of the interaction between nature and humankind.
Needless to say, a shift in the economy and society, as well as in our values and lifestyle, is required, coupled with scientific and technological progress, in order to solve environmental and energy problems.
We must not overlook that each individual should be aware of resource and energy conservation and should modify their daily lifestyle accordingly, such as setting the air conditioner/heater high during summer and low during winter, turning off the water when bathing or brushing one's teeth, turning off lights whenever possible, and improving wasteful use of energy and resources.
(d) Promotion of substance and material research and nano technology
Substances and materials are basic fields to support the manufacturing industry, and can become a motive force in technical innovations in information communication technology, life science, and environmental science. Their importance will continue to increase in the future, and the expectations in developing materials that contribute to energy and resource conservation and guarantee of a safe living space are high.
In addition, nano technology is a comprehensive, cross-sectional science technology related to a diverse range of fields, including material technology and manufacturing technology. The manipulation of atoms and molecules in nano meters (1/1 billion) and the manufacturing of micro machines are expected to produce remarkable innovations in the fields of information communication technology, environmental science technology, life science and medical care. This means that efforts stemming from the integration of industrial, academic and governmental knowledge will be important.
(4) Development of system and foundation
An organization to continually discuss various problems occurring within the framework of 'science and technology' in modern society and to accumulate information is essential. Either the government or private sector can be selected, but using both organizations is probably desirable. If, from the activities of these organizations, we are able to obtain data that can assist in our decision-making, or become action guidelines, these organizations can be meaningful in their support of Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office.
Within scientific and technological policies, consideration should be given to the fields where methods to mobilize large numbers of researchers may work or not. The promotion of large projects and small science should be separate, and fields must be limited to those that are fully prepared to mobilize many researchers. As mentioned above, basic research and applied development research are both important, and thus it is necessary to harmonize the distribution of research funds. Together with government-led project research and development, it is also important to promote unique and advanced research. Therefore competitive research funds, such as the science research subsidy, must be expanded while securing basic research funds.
As the base to promote 'science and technology' comprehensively, expansion of research funds for cultural and social sciences, as well as financial assistance for educational activities, is essential.
Because of its physical features, Japan has become an industrial nation based on 'science and technology.' In the next leap forward, research that now seem unnecessary will become essential, along with 'science and technology' to maintain the country. Balanced investment in both types of research will be important as the foundation of Japan's long-term development.
Likewise for spending on research, one important issue is to develop an attractive research environment, including facilities and equipment. As the research environment deteriorates with small, old research facilities and out-of-date equipment, it is inevitable that Japan will be handicapped in research competition with foreign countries. In order to improve research facilities and equipment to a world-class level, intensive allocation of budget resources is essential. Developing and ensuring excellent researchers and research assistants are essential too, along with creating an attractive environment and system to allow overseas researchers and young researchers to take an active role in Japan.
In addition, it is essential to construct the necessary intellectual foundation in systematizing 'science and technology'. In the area of life science, the preservation and supply of test animals, cells and genes will be crucial, and in the area of pharmacology and chemistry, the preservation and supply of various compounds will be essential as well. Test assessment methods to determine the characteristics of materials, methods to measure environmental contaminants, methods to analyze protein functions, and research and development of advanced tools in measurement, analysis and test assessment to increase the efficiency and credibility of research and development will also be important. Furthermore, the creation of a database related to our intellectual foundation should be emphasized. The work that supports this foundation is often inconspicuous and therefore consideration should be given to human resource development and it treatment.
Development of standardized foundation is as important as that of intellectual foundation. The number of Japanese technologies that have become an international standard is relatively small, despite the technical progress in Japan. One of the reasons for this is the lack of active efforts to make these technologies global standards, and thus it is necessary to create technical standards through the cooperation of industry, academia and government, and to widely promote these technologies to the world, while ensuring their protection through intellectual property rights.
(5) Assessment of research activities
It is essential to evaluate the achievement of researchers appropriately, and to strictly assess research assignments and research institutions, in order to increase their efficiency, activate research activities, and achieve excellent results. Without doing so, we cannot talk about the future of 'science and technology,' and we will not be able to create a system to plan or realize our nation's strategic goals. If the government can skillfully assess its policies and research, it can establish a clear science and technology policy.
Chapter 4. Creation of a New "Knowledge Society"
(1) Development of "knowledge" frontiers
The foundation of the knowledge society is ceaseless intellectual creation. Despite the remarkable progress of science in the 20th century, many frontiers remain such as the birth and fate of the universe.
Even taking the earth as an example as only one of the many planets, many unknown areas remain to be explored such as the stratosphere, ocean depths, and sea floors. So research and development on the oceans, the earth, and the universe should be promoted to further develop these frontiers.
Looking at life, our understanding of the essence of life is deepening as a result of advancements in genome research, and it is expected that life evolution and the structure of biodiversity will continue to be clarified. Genes that characterize humans will also be better understood based on comparative research of humans and other primates. In addition, research on proteins from genome is an important issue. One of the remaining important frontiers is brain research. Currently, research on brain functions is being conducted through various approaches, but how close these researches can reveal the human mind is a significant issue.
Human intellectual inquiries will leap further in the next century and seek romance in various fields. The problems are how to stimulate young people's interest in science, and how to develop intellectual frontiers. Thus the importance of education, to be mentioned later, will increase even further.
The 20th century is said to be an explosion of "knowledge," and we are already swimming in an ocean of "knowledge. A new explosion of knowledge will occur in the next century as well, but we have not fully utilized the "knowledge" already accumulated. How to use knowledge will be important in the knowledge society.
Without a doubt, humankind will face many difficult problems in the 21st century, including a shortage of energy, food and water problems, population increases, new diseases, environmental destruction, and the loss of biodiversity. To solve these problems, we must rapidly and accurately apply the enormous volume of knowledge that we are accumulated. In addition, it is said that the "knowledge-driven economy" will be the norm in the 21st century, and economies will therefore require a much stronger foundation of knowledge. Knowledge will be used in many areas, not only in manufacturing industries but also in service industries such as the financial sector. The 21st century is also referred to as the century of information because of the importance of effectively using knowledge.
Traditionally, science developed with intellectual curiosity as the driving force. However, once science progresses to this level, science must be applied to individuals, human society and all other life on earth. Thus the utilization of knowledge has become an important issue.
(3) Integration of knowledge and construction of the new knowledge society
It is said that society in the 21st century will be a knowledge society, or a knowledge-based society. This means that the structure of society, including politics, economy, and diplomacy, will be based on "knowledge." "Knowledge" of course includes 'science and technology' and all human activities that strive to "know." In a broader sense, this leads to philosophy.
In the 20th century, natural science, cultural science, and social science developed as independent academic fields. As a result, we face many difficult problems today. For example, it is now possible to even change the essence of life due to advancements in medical care, which in turn has highlighted the importance of ethics. Ethics are demanded in science. Environmental problems are demanding a shift to a recycling-oriented economic society, and expectations toward 'science and technology' are increasing. However, 'science and technology' cannot solve all of these problems. We have to seriously question what is the new affluence that can satisfy people. Naturally, cultural and social sciences will be very important subjects. Only when independently developed "knowledge" is unified, a knowledge society appropriate for the 21st century will be created. In other words, a knowledge society is the integration of knowledge and wisdom. This is also seen in the phrase "era of knowledge." In this sense, advancement of a 21st century-styled scientific and technological civilization is requested. Scholarly gatherings and discussions are becoming essential to construct this knowledge society.
(4) Requirements to construct the new knowledge society
(a) Importance of education and increase in investment in education and research
Education is an important condition to construct a knowledge society. During elementary and secondary education, it is essential for students to be interested in the unknown world, as well as to develop the ability to think independently. During higher education, the acquisition of the most advanced knowledge and the ability to develop individuality are very important. In addition, students must acquire enthusiasm and academic skills to encourage lifelong learning. A knowledge society means a lifelong learning society.
Along with researchers, the public must play an important role in the knowledge society. To improve education that supports this knowledge society, investment in education is an important condition. At the same time, investment in academic research centered on universities and 'science and technology' is a very important condition, as this investment directly assists in developing our knowledge society.
The allocation of resources to education and research will be one of the largest investments in the future to construct the knowledge society. Sufficient consideration must be made for school education, as well as lifelong education. The research and development ability of various sectors in society should be utilized along with the ability of universities and research centers. When government funding is introduced, needless to say, a strict and fair assessment is essential, and recipients of research grants should be obliged to justify their spending.
(b) Reform of the social system
Instead of lifetime employment upon graduation from university, flexibility to work in various sectors will increase social vitality and be an effective means of integrating knowledge. To this end, the salary system and the employment structure should be changed so that income reflects the ability of individuals. Based on this assumption, society must be revised, including the governance of all organizations, employment methods and decision-making. Reform of the social system will be very important in constructing the knowledge society, and changing the awareness of the public will be essential to appropriately revise the social system.
(c)Formation of an open society
How the public shares knowledge created in rapidly advancing scientific and technological communities, and how opinions are exchanged across different fields are important issues. Scientific and technological communities and governments must make maximum efforts in these areas. The advancement of 'science and technology' and academic research in Japan will serve to increase Japan's intellectual presence, and contribute to its society and economy. Knowledge is for everyone, and we must also contribute to the progress of academic research and scientific and technological communities worldwide, as well as to the progress of cultures and civilizations of humankind. As globalization progresses, Japan must make utmost efforts to improve its global knowledge. Competition in global society and coexistence and harmony on a global scale are being demanded. Japan must also reform its language education, particularly its English language education, in order for Japan to spread new ideas throughout the world and to facilitate international exchanges. The formation of the knowledge society will be difficult unless an open domestic and international society is realized.
As we enter the 21st century in January of next year, the Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office, will begin its activities, including the integration of human, social and natural sciences and the implementation of related strategic policies. Council for Science and Technology has discussed the relationship between science and technology and the social aspects of politics, economics, education, lifestyles, and culture in order to create guidelines for Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office. It has also examined the contact points between science and technology and human and social sciences, and their overlapping areas. The results of these discussions over almost two years will be summarized and presented.
Science and technology is part of the activities of human beings and in a broad sense should be useful in human society. But looking back over the history of the present century, science and technology has adversely affected human society on occasion, and it is fact that concerns and distrust towards science and technology exist today. On the other hand, science and technology has remarkably prolonged human life, and has made our life more convenient while expanding the range of human activities. This trend will become more evident in the next century, and there is little doubt that science and technology will affect our daily lives even further.
As the progress of science and technology intensifies, science and technology will become increasingly difficult to understand by the general public and cause random concerns. In addition, the distance between experts and non-experts will widen, and two-way exchange will become more difficult. Science and technology will bring change to society, and the demands of society regarding science and technology are expected to diversify in the next century. Therefore, methods to deepen the exchange between science and technology and society will be an important issue in the future. This problem lies at the bottom of this report, and because of this, the report has been titled "Science and Technology Advances with Society." Two-way exchanges are difficult, and we hope that many more people will understand this as a crucial issue in the next century, even though a perfect conclusion has not been achieved. In this sense, we hope that this report will be used not only as a discussion base by Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office, but also be read by many Japanese citizens.
We aim to create 'science and technology' that can thrive in and for society in order to built a knowledge society by developing frontiers of "knowledge" and by using and integrating this "knowledge." We strive to create science and technology that can progress with society, with the hope that one day people we say that the 21st century was even more progressive than the 20th century in all areas.
1. Progress to modern civilization based on 'science and technology'
Today, 'science and technology' is increasingly affecting society and its role in constructing an affluent civil society in the 21st century will be significant. It is important to look back on the 20th century, a century that is unique in the history of humankind, as well as the long list of human activities in the history of civilization, to examine future scientific and technological policies.
When defining civilization created by humankind through the application of technical abilities and culture created by everyday life, 'science and technology' is the foundation of the development of modern civilization through industrialization. 'Science and technology' not only brought materialistic wealth to consumption lifestyles, but also significantly contributed to providing spiritual affluence in culture and leisure; it can be said to have created culture.
The inseparable relationship between 'science and technology' and civilization and culture did not begin in the modern era, but can be seen as far back as ancient civilization. Whether or not science at that time can be called as science as we know it today, 'science and technology' even then formed the foundation of civilization and culture.
In ancient Egypt, stone construction technology was highly developed as seen in the pyramids and palaces; measurement technology was the source of geometry in Greece, and the solar calendar was adopted by Rome and handed down to the Julian calendar, which is the origin of the modern calendar. In Mesopotamia, agricultural technology such as flood control and irrigation progressed, and astronomy, creation of the calendar, mathematics, and agriculture flourished.
In Indus civilization, water disposal facilities, including sewerage, were constructed based on city plans. In the many ancient civilizations in Central and South America, accurate stone construction technology and accurate calendars surprise us even today.
As well, the invention of explosives, compass, and type letter press in the Middle Ages significantly changed the world and opened the door to modern society. After the birth of modern science, science moved into the industrial revolution and integration of 'science and technology.' As a result, the general public was able to enjoy the achievements of 'science and technology' through industrialization. This is the birth of modern civilization that has created culture.
Modern civilization based on 'science and technology' was formed on this historical foundation.
2. Japan's acceptance of 'science and technology'
Looking back on the history of Japan during the Meiji and Edo periods is an effective way to see how Japan established itself as an economic giant by accepting 'science and technology' from Western countries.
(1) Acceptance of 'science and technology' from the West during Edo and Meiji periods
Generally speaking, the Meiji Government achieved modernization of Japan through the introduction of Western civilization, although the foundation of modernization was already developed during the Edo Period and played an important role. During the Edo Period, Japan adopted a closed country policy, but the government was familiar with Western products and circumstances through Holland via Nagasaki. In addition, educational institutions were developed such as feudal clan schools and private elementary schools, and the literacy rate of samurai and the general public was high, as was the basic ability of the public. These elements enabled Japan to smoothly introduce 'science and technology' from the West during the Meiji Period.
Japan has developed its own traditional crafts since ancient days. As "Japan" also means lacquerware, the level of its traditional crafts was obviously high. This is another reason why modern 'science and technology' was introduced so easily.
Through the "hired foreigner" policy of the Meiji Government in order to realize "wealth and military power of the country" and "promotion of industry," the acceptance of Western culture was like the "Japanese spirit combined with Western learning." Japan absorbed Western 'science and technology' while retaining Confucianism and its feudal system, as represented by "Oriental morality and Western art (=technology)" advocated by Shozan Sakuma at the end of the Edo Period. Yukichi Fukuzawa criticized Confucianism and the feudal system in his book "Seiyo Jijo," and promoted the adoption of Western social systems and morality, together with Western 'science and technology.' On the other hand, Baelz was critical by saying, "The Japanese only adopted the achievements of Western science by considering it mechanistically without appreciating the scientific spirit." Without looking at the circumstances of Japan at that time and the national character of the Japanese, it is difficult to indiscriminately determine what was the best selection at that time.
International circumstances at that time had much of Asia conquered or colonized by the Western Great Powers, and only Japan succeeded in modernization. This success contrasts the reform movement that attempted to introduce modern Western civilization in the Qing Dynasty, based on the idea of Chinese superiority (system/culture) over the West but overwhelming Western technology (artillery/warships). Thus China failed to modernize although both Japan and China belonged to the same Oriental civilization during the Meiji Period. China failed to modernize because of its incomplete adoption of Western ideas, as China continued to cling to its traditional values. Japan absorbed Western civilization as much as possible. With the national policy to catch the West, the policy to develop human resources was an obvious choice in the process of introducing 'science and technology' during the Meiji Period, and Japanese science began by including technology