The National Science Foundation's (NSF) Tokyo Office periodically receives and disseminates reports on research developments in Japan that are related to the Foundation's mission. NSF-sponsored researchers currently working in Japan prepare many of these reports. These reports provide information for use by the global science and engineering community. .
Dr. Erik T Nilsen, former Program Director for Ecological and Evolutionary Physiology at the National Science Foundation, prepared the following report. Dr. Nilsen recently returned full-time to his position as Professor of Biology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Dr. Nilsen visited Japan from June 29, 1998 to July 12, 1998 as a Visiting Research Fellow (short-term) under the sponsorship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). Professor Takayoshi Koike, professor of forest ecophysiology at the Boreal Forest Conservation Research Department, Hokkaido Univeristy, Sapporo, Japan served as host scientist. Dr. Nilsen may be reached via email at: enilsen@vt.edu
1. Introduction. The following report concerns a Short Term Fellowship (US98013) sponsored by the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) to Erik T Nilsen, hosted by Takayoshi Koike (Professor of Ecology at Hokkaido University) from June 28 through July 12 1998. This report is intended to cover the diversity of academic activities of the fellow while in Japan, his thoughts and impressions on the science of plant ecophysiology / forest ecology in Japan in relation to the field of plant ecology as a whole, and to provide information useful for others that may pursue collaborative research in Japan. Comments on the administration and academic / scientific value of the short term fellowships are also included in this document. All the opinions and comments in this report are those of the fellow and were developed during this short term visit. These views were developed upon a limited sample of the science in Japan and may change after longer term and wider visits to Japan.
2. Goals of the fellowship. The fellowship was designed for two purposes. Primarily this was an educational experience for me to meet Japanese ecophysiologists, learn about ecological research in Japan, visit Japanese Universities, and investigate funding mechanisms for research in plant ecology. In addition, I presented my research at 4 institutions and discussed research projects with graduate students and professors throughout my fellowship. The secondary importance of this visit concerned my research in ecophysiology of Rhododendron. I hoped to collect information about the architecture of R. brachycarpum a sister species to R. maximum, R. macrophyllum, and R. catawbiense in the United States.
3. Impressions of cultural factors. The basic culture of Japan was not a surprise to me because as a child I lived in Kobe, Japan for 2 years. Sitting at low tables and living in guest houses can take its toll on middle-aged, western-leggs, and one needs to be fairly adventurous with meals. The ever-present ukata, slippers, and nice hot baths are a very pleasant experience. Other than these lifestyle characteristics, there are several impressions I had about the Japanese culture which I think may influence the way that science is performed. First, and I think most important, each person is very proud of their work, no matter how small or relatively insignificant. This is very refreshing, because it results in a lot of enthusiasm about research projects at all levels of complexity. Age (seniority) is a very important factor in the hierarchy of scientific labs. Therefore, in some cases the leader of a lab may not be the best person to direct the research program. Education is taken very seriously and is very competitive. In order for students to get into good graduate programs they need to score very well on entrance examinations. This is also true for entry into government research labs such as those run by the forest service. Consequently graduate students and scientists are very knowledgeable in their science.
Due to the long and complex history of Japan, cultural attributes are unique and interesting. I would recommend that any person coming to Japan on a fellowship or collaborative research agreement allow for time to investigate the culture of Japan. A true understanding of science and education in this country can not be realized without a good understanding of the culture. It is not advisable for visitors to stay in hotels, visit shrines and temples, and spend their whole experience at Universities in laboratories talking to scientists and students. It is preferable to stay at guest houses (and more affordable), go into the field with the scientists, visit a few temples, spend some time in the towns, and dine in sushi bars, noodle shops, and other more local facilities. This helps break the formality of the laboratories and gives the visitor a better window into the science and the people.
4. Impressions and thoughts about science in Japan. I was only in a narrow part of Japan and for a limited time however, I was able to gather some general characteristics of the science of plant ecology and ecological physiology while I was in this part of Japan. Before taking this fellowship, I was aware of the historical excellence of plant ecology research in Japan, so I expected to find active research labs.
Educational system: Japanese universities are first class institutions. Classes are detailed and up to date. Professors are demanding and students have an excellent knowledge base upon graduation from undergraduate institutions. The traditional focus of students has been to succeed on examinations because these are used as the primary mechanism for selecting students for admission to graduate school. This is very important because in many Universities the majority of professors graduated from the same University. The focus on examinations and factual knowledge has resulted in a perceived lack of independent thinking. As a result students are required to take a class in independent thinking as an undergraduate, and as graduate students they are asked to come up with their own project. I believe that the new students are still a little inhibited by the hierarchical educational system but they are innovative and very independent.
Successful graduate students often complete their work at one institution and eventually return to the same institution as an assistant professor after being a research associate at a number of different institutions. Professorship positions are infrequent and very competitive particularly in physiological ecology. Most graduate students finish with a masters and look for jobs in industry or at research labs. Industries do not want their employees to have a higher degree because the industry wants to train their employees. Entrance into federal labs such as the FFPRI does not require a higher degree (the applicants must pass a rigorous test). Some of the FFPRI employees later go on to complete a Ph.D. while employed by FFPRI.
Most Professors are senior in their career and age except for some notable exceptions. For example two of my hosts (Takayoshi Koike at Hokkaido University, and Toru Nakashizuka (Asano) at the Center for Ecological Research in Otsu) are relatively young full professors. These two scientists are premier examples of the new plant ecology and ecophysiology in Japan and will be leaders of the field in the future. Hiring new professors based on the quality of their research programs rather than their seniority will be a big step toward improving ecological science in Japan.
Infrastructure: In most cases, the buildings at the institutes and universities I visited were not new but were in reasonably good shape. A notable exception to this was the poor status of the buildings of the Center for Ecological research in Otsu. The building was in poor repair, too small, and halls were lined with equipment and samples. However, I was happy to hear that a new building has been constructed for the CER. It is too bad that the new facility will be the same size as the current facility because this group has a very active research program and could use more office and lab space. Otherwise, laboratory space was adequate in most institutes, and ample in some cases. Student research space was small for a western scientists standards. All labs had a central area with a large table in the lab for meetings among professors and students. Laboratories in the US. may often have a designated area for such meetings but it is usually outside of the lab. Most students have a small space with a desk and chair, and all have use of up to date computer facilities. In many cases a large number of students were housed in a relatively small lab. I saw one case in which 14 students were working in a space I would expect no more that 6 students to fit comfortably. The number of students per professor seemed larger than is common in the US.
Plant growth facilities were adequate but small at most institutes. The built in growth chambers were effective and well controlled. However, the volume of the chambers was often small. I was only able to see a few greenhouses and one phytotron (FFPRI, Sapporo). Greenhouses were small as was the phytotron I saw. I understood from conversations with scientists that only one or two other phytotrons exist in Japan. If so, the number of phytotrons in Japan should be increased because phytotrons are critical to large scale controlled experiments in plant growth response to environmental factors. Such experiments are necessary for both agricultural and ecological experimentation. Experimental forests are numerous and well designed to represent the diversity of climates and vegetation in Japan. These experimental forests are a tremendous resource for comparative biology and physiology that are not being used to their potential.
Equipment for ecophysiological research is adequate in some cases and inadequate in others. For example, gas exchange equipment is generally cutting edge in most labs, as is equipment for analysis of cellular substructure, and biochemistry. I understand that the cost of non-Japanese made equipment is often double the price that we experience in the US. This makes the acquisition of technical research equipment difficult. This may be the reason why equipment for studies of water relations was not up to date compared with that for other aspects of ecological physiology. It is important for labs to keep current in research equipment advances and I saw that this was the case in most labs even with the cost difficulties. I also noted that in most cases there was adequate, well-trained, support staff for the care and maintenance of this equipment.
Lab Administration and Organization: As discussed above, each university lab is organized around a full professor. The modern Japanese scientific organization was established at the time of the Meiji restoration (1900) when German research was considered the best in the world. The general pattern is to have one Professor, one associate professor and several research assistants or assistant professors in each unit. The Professors direct all laboratory activities and supervise the activities of associate professors, assistant professors, research associates and students. There may be one or a few research associates which run the day to day activities of the lab and a number of students and technicians performing research projects. At the national forestry research labs, activities are directed by the Lab Chief. Senior and junior researchers, as well as university students, perform most of the research in the national labs (FFPRI). Although this formal structure is the prevailing pattern, there are movements toward changing the system to be more similar to the American system. Many scientists are in favor of changing the system, however some of the older full professors are very comfortable with the old system. The attitude of scientists and technicians was always positive and enthusiastic. There is usually a healthy interaction between the national labs and the universities. Students of universities may do research in the national labs and employees of the national labs often attend meetings and research seminars in the universities.
Funding of research: Professors in Japan receive funds from the government ministries (Science and Technology, Monbushu, etc.) to support the research staff of their laboratory. In addition, there is no overhead charge on grants. Scientists can apply for additional research funds through a number of scientific ministries such as Monbushu and agencies such as the JSPS, and these funds are used for laboratory supplies, travel, equipment, etc. If a professor is not successful in these competitive arenas then they will still receive about $10,000 to keep their research going until the next round of competitive grants. This amount is large considering the salaries and overhead are already covered. Furthermore, there are a number of mechanisms by which graduate students can apply for fellowships to work in the ecology labs or experimental stations as a research associate. There are positive and negative aspects of this funding system. On the positive side, major labs can keep the resources necessary to continue their research program (retain personnel) over the long term. However, on the negative side, the amount of research dollars in competitive programs is relatively small due to the almost definite funding of all Professorís research labs through non-competitive channels.
Research questions and focus: Each of the research labs I visited was very active with a number of local and international projects. Malaysia, Indonesia, Russia, and Thailand are the most frequent sites for international research. This international research usually concerned either forestry issues or global change programs. Research in Japan was also focused on the effects of climate change on species fitness. The local research projects were diverse in subject and usually focused on the interpretation of data collected on plants insitu. In contrast to the US, manipulation studies were not a main part of current research activities. This may be due to the limited amount of experimental forest.
First impressions of the research efforts in plant ecology in Japan suggest that each researcher has a great enthusiasm for the particular species or system they are working on. Researchers are technically very capable and knowledgeable. However, if there is one criticism to make about the research efforts that I saw, it is the lack of a collective focus of research projects in an specific lab. Large inter-university research programs also lack clear focus. Many different studies of high quality are being done on topics very similar to those in the US. in any particular lab, but the projects are not focused on answering a basic ecological question. Attacking broad general questions in global climate change or plant ecology research is a difficult task for any laboratory, but it should be the ultimate goal of a research program.
5. Comments on the field excursions and experimental forests. I was fortunate enough in my short stay to visit a number of research sites currently being used by my host scientists and their graduate students. In addition, I was able to visit a forestry management district in Hokkaido. The following comments are not meant to be a complete list of activities and research projects that I learned about at each site. Rather, I present an indication of the nature of the sites and the types of research conducted there.
FFPRI Experimental Forest, Sapporo: This experimental forest is located adjacent to Sapporo, and is the site of numerous experiments in forest processes. I was taken around the forest by two soil scientists (Masamichi Takahashi, and Yojiro Matsuura). They showed me some fertilization trials with two species of Picea and one species of Birch. The results of the experiment were printed on a display board in front of the forest. This was the first indication that the Japanese take PR very seriously. Over the first 20 yrs. fertilization increased growth by about 40%, however over the next 20 years growth has slowly become equal among treatments. The soil scientists also explained an inherent difference in Picea species architecture that causes a major difference in subcanopy light availability. Another study showed the influence of throughfall on the soil PH near the tree (it becomes more acid. A second study I was taken to was a gap response study. One large (20m in diameter) gap was created for the study of regeneration and respiration processes. Decomposition of standing logs of Birch and Oak were also investigated and results are as expected. Research in this gap seemed to be concluded, only 5 year monitoring was still active. While going to and from this gap study it was clear how important dwarf bamboo (Sasa) is to the recruitment of canopy tree seedlings and forest dynamics. In fact, I saw Sasa in almost every ecosystem I visited in Hokkaido. This is a ubiquitous aspect of the Japanese forest that is absent from the eastern deciduous forest of the US. However, similar processes occur for Rhododendron maximum in the Appalachian mountain range and Gaylosaccia sp. in the Cascade mountains of Oregon. The third experiment they showed me was a study of root system biomass. This was a fortuitous study because a typhoon uprooted a number of trees. The trees were harvested and the roots collected for biomass analysis.
In general the research I was shown was standard fare for a forestry experimental station. Most of the interesting research was being done over seas (Malaysia, and Indonesia).
Kotanbetsu District Forest: This field trip was organized by Kiyoshi Ishida as an educational experience for forest scientists in the FFPRI and myself. Before being lead through the forest district we met with the director Akihito Tajiri, who explain the finances and nature of the forest district. We then went on to several sites in the forest at different stages of management. In a young Ash forest we discussed the virtues of the species and the need for thinning. In a self regenerated Picea forest we discussed natural regeneration and the monitoring of the permanent plot. During these two visits the rangers wore bells to keep bears away. Our third site was a small cabin where 7 people had been taken by large grizzly bears. There was a plaster cast of a huge grizzly bear towering over the cabin and a poster describing the event. I got the idea that it may be prudent to be prepared for bears when working in the Hokkaido forest. Our last stop was to a recent logging site. Here the process of logging and replanting was discussed at some length. Overall, this was an excellent look at the management of forest resources in Japan.
I came away from this excursion with several important thoughts. First, the rangers and forest managers are very knowledgeable and experienced. The forests are heavily managed, not always to the best result. Japan has a large amount of forest that they are not harvesting because the costs of harvest and replanting are greater than the cost of importing lumber.
The evening party was quite an experience. The Japanese love celebrations and ceremony. Displayed before me was a large multitude of dishes containing a diversity of ocean products, mostly raw. Lots of beer and Saki was consumed (never pouring for yourself), and speeches were made by the director of the forest district and everyone at the table. Most dishes were excellent except one (sea urchin roe - Uni) that did not sit well with my western pallet. Much interesting and lively conversation continued until the party was formally concluded by the director.
Taisetzu National Park. Yutaka Maruyama and Takayoshi Koike had arranged the field excursion to Taisetzu National Park. This is an impressive canyon which in many ways was similar to the Columbia George in Washington and Oregon. During this excursion we visited some old growth Picea forest. Tree density is less than in managed stands and Sasa is still present but not as abundant. I was able to take some measurements on R. brachycarpum here as an understory species. R. brachycarpum is most abundant in gaps. I learned about studies of ecosystem dynamics and forest species recruitment at this site. After leaving this site we took a look at an area of the forest that had suffered massive damage by an intense typhoon in 1948. Following the typhoon all the logs were harvested and the area replanted. Regeneration of the forest and microclimatic factors have been recorded since 1950. This is one of the longest records of forest regeneration that I am aware of. We went on to see some tourist locations including a large water fall. The National Park museum was quite interesting and contained educational displays on geology, birds, mammals, plants, and insects. This is where I found a poster describing a caterpillar which exclusively feeds on Rhododendron aureum leaves. It is quite unusual for insects to feed on Rhododendron species. We decided to try and find R. aureum on Mt Tamure.
Mount Tamure. My visit to Mt. Tamure was short. We drove to the highest point possible and then scaled the mountain. This is a very popular mountain for hikers so the trail is mostly stairs. A LOT OF STAIRS. It is really amazing to see the clubs of elderly people who have kept in good enough shape to scale mountain trails like this as a hobby. After climbing well above the timberline we spent an hour or so looking for R. aureum. Unfortunately, it was not present and I was not able to collect any data. However, it was very interesting to see the mound style vegetation which is very reminiscent of desert mound vegetation.
Tomakami Experimental Forest. The Tomakami experimental forest is one of six operated by the University of Hokkaido ( Uryu, Teshio, Nakagawa, Hiyama, Wakayama, and Tomokomi) now under the direction of Takayoshi Koike. The following gives some explanation about these sites:
| Size (ha) | Precipitation (cm) | Mean Annual Temp (C) |
|---|---|---|
| Uryu (24) | Wakayama (35) | Wakayama (15.1) |
| Teshio (22) | Nakagawa (17) | Hijama (9.0) |
| Nakagawa (19) | Uryu (15) | Tomokomi (6.4) |
| Tomokami (2) | Hiyama (13) | Teshio (5.9) |
| Wakayama (0.4) | Tomakami (12) | Nakagawa (4.9) |
| Hiyama (0.1) | Teshio (10) | Uryu (3.0) |
An important point about these experimental forests is that they include a broad gradient of temperature and precipitation that could be used for studies on ecosystem dynamics. This is not a current focus of ecosystem studies in Japan.
The Tomakami forest has the longest tradition of these experimental forests. Dr. Shigeru Nakano (site director) explained that the experimental forest has four goals. First, and most important, the fostering of scientific research. A major component of this research is global change and canopy processes. The second is management of Japanese forest biodiversity. Several collections of genotypes are maintained on this site. Third, this is the main site for training of foresters. Fourth, this forest is used for public education and public activites. Many visitors per year visit the site for classes on natural history, as well as weddings, and concerts.
My visits to this experimental forest were limited to discussions with students about there research projects, and canopy access structures. Once again I found the students very enthusiastic and focused on their study. They were well aware of the research going on in the US but their experience was mostly limited to personal visits to family and friends. A few of the students had visited research sites in the US and interacted with US scientists and this had a profound impact on their philosophy and approach to science. This was another reflection on the importance of exchanges between countries at the level of graduate students. As a whole, the major stumbling point for graduate students is English usage. The students are all trained in reading English but they are not able to use it very well in writing or speaking. Since many of the most important journals for ecology are written in English it is critical for them to be able to use this language or have access to someone who can help them with posters, presentations, and manuscripts.
Tomakami has three canopy access systems. One is a three floor tower resembling a light house with a rotating, extendible, canopy access ladder on each floor. Unfortunately, during construction the forest was damaged so that the tower canít actually access the canopy directly. It is used mostly for bird behavior studies. The second site was an elaborate scaffolding they call a Jungle Gym. This structure provides access to various heights in the canopy and encloses about 10 individual trees. The utility of this facility is small because the sample sizes per tree species are small (a few individuals of a few species). Thus, research at this site is now mostly focused on insect processes (herbivory and pollination) rather than canopy plant processes. The third canopy acces facility was a newly built canopy crane. This crane is 25m high (4 m above the top of the canopy) with a radius of 80m. The pod extending from the crane can reach at least 3 individuals of 23 species in this Oak Maple forest. The crane can be operated by remote control from the canopy access pod. This is the most up to date mechanism of accessing canopy processes. Right now there is only one study using this facility but I am sure it will get extensive use in the future.
Mount Shimigare. This mountain is located to the north west of Mt. Fuji in the Yamanashi prefecture. I was escorted to this site by Dr. Kachi of Tokyo Metropolitan University and Dr. Nakano from the Yamanashi Institute of Environmental Sciences (YIES). We went to this site to learn about wave regenerated Aibes forest dynamics and discuss the research projects of Dr. Kachiís students. This mountain is accessible by gondola because it is also a ski resort. At the top of the gondola is the start point for hikes to the highest point of the mountain. Once again, I was impressed by the fitness of the average population because we passed many people of different ages and this is a difficult hike both due to the elevation and terrain. Along the way we discussed a number of research projects concerned with the wave regenerated forest and the associated herbaceous species. The higher elevation is mostly Aibes forest and the lower elevation is a combination of Birch, Salix and Aibes with a number of other species.
Mount Fuji. I was fortunate to visit Mt. Fuji twice. On the first occasion, I was escorted by Dr. Nakano from the YIES. On this trip we drove to a location on the western slope of Mt Fuji just above timberline. Here we discussed Dr. Nakanoís studies of the two dominant Polygonum species. Both species are early colonizers but they have very different water conduction patterns. I think this is a great example of individual species, that are in one functional group, but behave very differently. We were able to find R. brachycarpum in full bloom and I was able to investigate the leaf survivorship patterns.
My second visit to Mt. Fuji was more extensive than my first and was organized by Dr. Kibe and students from Shizuoka University. These researchers are affiliated with the laboratory of Dr. Masazawa, an arctic and alpine ecophysiologist. We traveled up the eastern side of Mt. Fuji and hiked to the main craters where we discussed some research projects concerning the influence of elevated temperature on seedling recruitment. We also walked down into the second crater and discussed a research project on an endemic Artemesia species and the two Polygonum species introduced to me by Dr. Nakano. Later we visited sites used in a study of the root growth and population dynamics of a thistle species.
6. Comments on the administration and effectiveness of the JSPS fellowship. The entire organization of my JSPS fellowship was first rate. Tickets were organized by Mr. Endo efficiently and in a timely manner. My hosts were very well prepared and gave me a thorough introduction to plant ecological science in Japan. All field trips, presentations, and University visits went without trouble. Explanations of train transferes were explicit and easy to follow. The only small trouble was the initial transfer of funds from my host to me, and that was due to requirements of the specific bank rather than any issue with JSPS fellowship administration. It is important for JSPS fellows to bring funds for at least a week so that their costs can be covered while the JSPS funds are transferred. Funds were adequate for my travels and per dieum. However, if I had stayed in western style hotels, and dined there, the stipend would not have been adequate.
7. Acknowledgments and Thanks. I would like to thank the JSPS for the opportunity to visit Japan and learn about research activities in plant ecological physiology. My feeling that Japanese scientists are doing excellent research in this area was further strengthened by my fellowship experience. I would like to extend a special thanks to Dr. Takayoshi Koike who went to great strides to arrange my visit and make it very rewarding. There are so many people to thank for my trip that I canít possible thank them all. In addition to the following paragraphs I want to extend sincere thanks to all those people who introduced me to their research and laboratories, and joined me on field trips. You enriched my experience in Japan greatly.
Many thanks to Yutaka Mauyama, Chief of the Ecophysiology Lab at FFPRI Hokkaido. My visit to the ecophysiology lab and discussions with scientists was memorable. I learned a lot and will be affected by this long into the future. My field trip through Hokkaido was very informative and enjoyable. Thanks for taking me for my watch band, introducing me to Japanese fish markets, and a generally excellent experience in Hokkaido.
Thanks to Dr. Shigeru Nakano for my introduction to Tomokami Experimental forest. Also, I appreciated very much the introduction to the management of a forest district by Akihiko Tajiri.
Thanks so much to Naoki Kachi, and Takashi Nakano for my excursion on Mt. Shimigari. This group from Tokyo Metropolitan University and YIES are doing excellent research in population biology and physiological ecology. I will enjoy reading about their projects in the future.
Thanks so much to Toru Nakashizuka for my visit to the Center of Ecological Research in Otsu, and my visit to Kyoto University. I really enjoyed talking with students and faculty about their research ideas, and learning about the large projects undertaken by the CER for the future. Also, I really appreciate being taken up to Mt. Heae to see the temples.
Many thanks to Dr. Washitani, and Naoko Yamashita for helping me through the maze of research activities at Tsukuba University and FFPRI Tsukuba. I thoroughly enjoyed my presentation and was imnpressed by the clarity of questions about my research.
I would also like to thank Dr. Kibe and the graduate students who took me for a rewarding experience on Mt. Fuji. I still canít believe that my camera was jammed on this trip. I hope to have many communications with members of the lab about research in the future.
I want to thank all the graduate students that I visited on this trip for many stimulating discussions about research. I hope that I was able to provide you with some insight or a different opinion on your research activities. I very much look forward to reading your articles in the future.
8. Outline of academic activities.